Irrigation in pine nurseries

Irrigation in pine nurseries

Authors

  • David B. South School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, AL
  • Ryan Nadel School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, AL

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.10.05.88

Keywords:

Seedling Quality, Soil moisture, Seedling survival, Hardening, Myth, Freeze protection

Abstract

This review provides information and opinions about irrigation practices in pine nurseries. Even when nurseries receive more than 15 mm of rainfall week-1, managers irrigate seedbeds to increase germination, increase seed efficiency, and increase root growth. In the southern United States, a 7-month old pine seedling in an outdoor nursery typically receives 2 to 6 kg of water supplied from either sprinklers (39 nurseries) or center-pivot irrigation (12 nurseries). Most nursery managers do not intentionally subject the crop to moisture stress, since most reforestation sites receive adequate rainfall, and many studies show that reducing root mass does not increase seedling performance. In fact, nursery profits can be reduced by more than $13,000 ha-1 when deficit irrigation reduces average seedling diameter by 1 mm. Although some researchers believe that failure to properly drought stress pine seedlings might increase outplanting mortality by up to 75%, research over the past 40 years does not support that myth. When pine seedlings average 5 mm (at the root-collar), water stress is not a reliable method of increasing tolerance to an October freeze event. In several greenhouse trials, researchers grew and tested seedlings that nursery managers would classify as culls (i.e., dry root mass < 0.5 g). Unfortunately, it is common for researchers to make irrigation recommendations without first developing a water-production function curve.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biography

David B. South, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, AL

Emeritus Professor   https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3902-3950

References

Abdollahi KK, Bilan MV, Ning ZH (1993) Survival and growth response of mesic and dry-site sources of loblolly pine seedlings to cyclic soil moisture deficit. In: Brissette JC (ed) Proceedings: 7thBiennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference. New Orleans (LA) USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station: GTR SO-93: 269-272.

Abod SA, Sandi S (1983) Effect of restricted watering and its combination with root pruning on root growth capacity, water status and food reserves of Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis seedlings. Plant and Soil 71(1-3): 123-129. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02182647 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02182647

Adams AJS (1951) The forest nursery for Pinus radiata at Mt. Burr in the Southeast of South Australia. Australian Forestry 15(1): 47-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.1951.10675797 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.1951.10675797

Adams R (1983) Irrigation according to PMS and tensiometer instruments. In: 1982 Western Nurserymen's Conference. Ashland (OR) Southern Oregon State College: 36-40.

Aldhous JR, Mason WL (1994) Forest Nursery Practice. Forestry Commission Bull. 111, London, UK:268 p.

Allison CJ (1972) Freeze-damage control in forest nurseries. In: Proceedings: International Plant Propagators Society 22:77-82.

Ameye M, Wertin TM, Bauweraerts I, McGuire MA, Teskey RO, Steppe K (2012) The effect of induced heat waves on Pinus taeda and Quercus rubra seedlings in ambient and elevated CO2 atmospheres. New Phytol 196(2): 448-461. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04267.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04267.x

Ávila-Angulo ML, Aldrete A, Vargas-Hernández JJ, Gómez-Guerrero A, González-Hernández VA, Velázquez-Martínez A (2017) Hardening of Pinus oaxacana Mirov seedlings under irrigation management in nursery. RevistaChapingo. Serie Ciencias Forestales y del Ambiente 23(2): 221-229. https://doi.org/10.5154/r.rchscfa.2016.05.029 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5154/r.rchscfa.2016.05.029

Balneaves JM, Menzies MI (1990) Water potential and subsequent growth of Pinus radiata seedlings: influence of lifting, packaging, and storage conditions. NZJ For Sci 20(3):257-267.

Barnard EL (1990) Groundline heat lesions on tree seedlings. Gainesville (FL) Department Agric. & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry: Plant Pathology Circular 338: 2 p.

Barnard EL (1997) Diseases of seedlings in forest tree nurseries in Florida: history and status. In: James RL (ed) Proceedings: 3rd Meeting of the IUFRO working party 7.03.04. Diseases and Insects in Forest Nurseries. Forest Health Protection. Coeur d'Alene (ID) USDA Forest Service, Northern Region: Report 97-4: 13-21.

Barnard EL, Gilly SP (1986) Charcoal root rot of pines. Gainesville (FL) Department Agric. & Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry: Plant Pathology Circular 290: 4 p.

Barnard EL, Gilly SP, Ash EC (1994) An evaluation of dazomet and metam-sodium soil fumigants for control of Macrophomina phaseolina in a Florida forest nursery. Tree Planters' Notes 45(3): 91-95.

Bartok JW (2005) Retractable roof greenhouses and shadehouses. In: Dumroese RK; Riley LE; Landis TD (eds) Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations-2004. Fort Collins (CO) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: RMRS-P-35: 73-75.

Bates CG, Pierce RG (1913) Forestation of the sand hills of Nebraska and Kansas. Washington (DC) USDA Forest Service: Bulletin No. 121: 49 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.66397 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.66397

Bates CG, Roeser J (1924) Relative resistance of tree seedlings to excessive heat. Washington (DC) USDA Forest Service: Bulletin No 1263: 16 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.64785 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.64785

Bauweraerts I, Ameye M, Wertin TM, McGuire MA, Teskey RO, Steppe K (2014) Water availability is the decisive factor for the growth of two tree species in the occurrence of consecutive heat waves. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 189-190: 19-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.01.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.01.001

Bayley AD, Kietzka JW (1996) Stock quality and field performance of Pinus patula seedlings produced under two nursery growing regimes during seven different nursery production periods. New For 13(1-3): 337-352.

Belluschi PG (1968) Development of Weyerhaeuser nurseries. In: Proceedings: Biennial Meeting Western Forest Nursery Council: 26-29.

Beon MS, Bartsch N (2003) Early seedling growth of pine (Pinus densiflora) and oaks (Quercus serrata, Q. mongolica, Q. variabilis) in response to light intensity and soil moisture. Plant Ecology 167(1):97-105. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023989813567 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023989813567

Biel C, Savé R, Habrouk A, Espelta JM. Retana J (2004) Effects of restricted watering and CO2 enrichment in the morphology and performance after transplanting of nursery-grown Pinus nigra seedlings. HortSci 39(3): 535-540. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.39.3.535 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.39.3.535

Biggin P (1983) Tunnel cloches-development of a nursery technique for growing conifers. For 56(1): 45-59. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/56.1.45 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/56.1.45

Blake TJ, Li J (2003) Hydraulic adjustment in jack pine and black spruce seedlings under controlled cycles of dehydration and rehydration. Physiologia Plantarum 117: 532-539. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-3054.2003.00059.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-3054.2003.00059.x

Bogawski P, Bednorz E (2014) Comparison and validation of selected evapotranspiration models for conditions in Poland (Central Europe). Water Resources Management 28(14): 5021-5038. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-014-0787-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-014-0787-8

Boyer JN, South DB (1984a) Forest nursery practices in the South. South J Appl For 8(2): 67-75. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/8.2.67 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/8.2.67

Boyer JN, South DB (1984b) A morphological comparison of greenhouse-grown loblolly pine seedlings with seedlings grown outdoors. Tree Planters' Notes 35(3): 15-18.

Boyer JN, South DB (1988) Date of sowing and emergence timing affect growth and development of loblolly pine seedlings. New Forest 2(4):231-246. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00027939

Brewster DR, Larsen JA (1925) Studies in western yellow pine nursery practice. Journal of Agricultural Research 31(12):1101-1120.

Brissette JC, Tiarks AE (1991) Nitrogen fertilization affects the partitioning of dry matter growth between shoots and roots of loblolly pine nursery stock. In: Coleman SS, Neary DG (eds) Proceedings: 6thBiennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference. Asheville (NC) USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: GTR SE-70: 108-117.

Bristow KL (1988) The role of mulch and its architecture in modifying soil temperature. Australian Journal of Soil Research 26(2): 269-280. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR9880269 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/SR9880269

Brix H (1960) Determination of viability of loblolly pine seedlings after wilting. Botanical Gazette. 121(4): 220-223. https://doi.org/10.1086/336073 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/336073

Buchanan G (1969) Herbicides and their effectiveness on grasses. In: Proceedings: forest nurserymen conferences. Atlanta (GA) USDA Forest Service, State and Private Forestry: 55-64.

Burnside OC, Colville WL (1964) Soybean and weed yields as affected by irrigation, row spacing, tillage, and amiben. Weeds 12(2):109-112. https://doi.org/10.2307/4040607 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/4040607

Carlson CA, Allan R, Morris AR (2004) Effects of temperature on Pinus patula seedlings growing in pots in a controlled environment. Southern African Forestry Journal 200(1): 27-38. https://doi.org/10.1080/20702620.2004.10431758 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20702620.2004.10431758

Carlson WC (1986) Root system considerations in the quality of loblolly pine seedlings. South J Appl For 10(2): 87-92. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/10.2.87 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/10.2.87

Cawse JCL, Martyn MG (1981) Ngodwana open-root nursery operations schedule as at 14.08.79. South African Forestry Journal 117(1): 45-49. https://doi.org/10.1080/00382167.1981.9630027 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00382167.1981.9630027

Chapman AG (1944) Classes of shortleaf pine nursery stock for planting in the Missouri Ozarks. J For 42(11):818-826.

Chieppa J, Eckhardt L, Chappelka A (2017) Simulated summer rainfall variability effects on loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) seedling physiology and susceptibility to root-infecting ophiostomatoid fungi. Forests 8(4):104. https://doi.org/10.3390/f8040104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/f8040104

Choat B, Brodersen CR, McElrone AJ (2015) Synchrotron X-ray microtomography of xylem embolism in Sequoia sempervirens saplings during cycles of drought and recovery. New Phytol 205(3):1095-1105. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13110 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13110

Choat B, Nolf M, Lopez R, Peters JMR, Carins-Murphy MR, Creek D, Brodribb TJ (2019) Non-invasive imaging shows no evidence of embolism repair after drought in tree species of two genera. Tree Physiol 39(1): 113-121. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpy093 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tpy093

Chung HH, Kramer PJ (1975) Absorption of water and 32 P through suberized and unsuberized roots of loblolly pine. Can J For Res 5(2): 229-235. https://doi.org/10.1139/x75-031 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/x75-031

Cleary BD (1971). The effect of plant moisture stress on the physiology and establishment of planted Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine seedlings. PhD thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 85 p.

Clements JR (1970) Shoot responses of young red pine to watering applied over two seasons. Can J Bot 48(1):75-80. https://doi.org/10.1139/b70-009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/b70-009

Conway RM (1986) Center pivot irrigation and southern pine seedling production. In: Schroeder RA (ed) Proc. Southern Forest Nursery Conference. Pensacola, FL: 75-79. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007611-198602001-00027 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00007611-198602001-00027

Cordell CE (1989) Soil fumigation in southern United States forest tree nurseries. In: Landis TD (ed) Proceedings: Intermountain forest nursery association. GTR RM-184. Fort Collins (CO) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 52-57.

Davey CB, McNabb K (2019) The management of seedling nutrition. In: McNabb K, Pike C (eds) Nursery Guide for the Production of Bareroot Hardwood Seedlings. Washington (DC) USDA Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 733: 75-87.

Davis AS, Aghai MM, Pinto JR, Apostol KG (2011) Growth, gas exchange, foliar nitrogen content, and water use of subirrigated and overhead-irrigated Populus tremuloides Michx. seedlings. HortSci 46(9):1249-1253. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.46.9.1249 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.46.9.1249

Davis WC, Wright E, Hartley C (1942) Diseases of forest-tree nursery stock. Washington (DC) Civilian Conservation Corps, Federal Security Administration: Forestry Pub. 9: 159 p.

Day RJ (1984) Water management. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) Forest Nursery Manual. MartinusNijhoff/Junk Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands,pp 133-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_11

Dierauf TA (1995) Undercutting in loblolly and white pine seedbeds. In: Landis TD, Dumroese RK (eds) Proceedings:Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations-1994. Fort Collins (CO) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: GTRRM-257: 56-72.

Dierauf TA, Chandler LA (1991) A three-year loblolly pine seedbed irrigation study. Virginia Department of Forestry. Charlottesville (VA) Occasional Report 93: 12 p.

Dominiewska A (2002) Irrigation guidelines for bareroot forest nurseries. Warsaw (PL) Directorate-General of State Forests: 64 p.

Dumroese RK, Page-Dumroese DS, Brown RE (2011) Allometry, nitrogen status, and carbon stable isotope composition of Pinus ponderosa seedlings in two growing media with contrasting nursery irrigation regimes. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 41(5): 1091-1101. https://doi.org/10.1139/x11-017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/x11-017

Dumroese RK, Pinto JR, Jacobs DF, Davis AS, Horiuchi B (2006) Subirrigation reduces water use, nitrogen loss, and moss growth in a container nursery. Native Plants Journal 7(3): 253-261. https://doi.org/10.1353/npj.2007.0004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/npj.2007.0004

Dumroese RK, Wenny DL, Page-Dumroese DS (1995) Nursery wastewater: the problem and possible remedies. In Landis TD, Cregg B (eds) Proceedings:Forest and Conservation Associations. Portland (OR) USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: GTR PNW-365: 89-97. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.99309 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.99309

Dunlap LJ, Pinto JR, Davis AS (2018) Effects of fertilizer on media chemistry and red-flowering currant seedling growth using a subirrigation system. HortSci 53(12): 1862-1871. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI13444-18 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI13444-18

Durło G, Jagiełło-Leńczuk K, Kormanek M, Małek S, Banach J (2018a) Supplementary irrigation at container nursery. Forest Research Papers 79(1): 13-21. https://doi.org/10.2478/frp-2018-0002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/frp-2018-0002

Durło G, Kormanek M, Małek S, Banach J (2018b) Visualization and quantification of peat substrate moisture by fully automated moisture controlling system (SMCS) in forest container nursery. Forest Research Papers 79(4): 317-325. https://doi.org/10.2478/frp-2018-0032 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/frp-2018-0032

Engstrom W (1949) Nursery irrigation. Forest tree nursery meeting. Seattle, WA:18-22.

Engstrom HE, Stoeckeler JH (1941) Nursery practice for trees and shrubs suitable for planting on the Prairie-Plains. Washington (DC) USDA: Misc. Publ. 434: 159 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.65705 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.65705

Espinoza SE, Ivković M, Yáñez AM, Magni CR, Santelices RE, Cabrera A (2020) Growth of radiata pine families in nursery and two years after field establishment. Scientia Agricola 77(3): 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-992x-2018-0159 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-992x-2018-0159

FAO (2020) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main report. Rome.

Faulkner R (1952) Notes on nursery irrigation and on chemical weed control practices in the USA and Canada. Forestry 25(2):126-134. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.forestry.a063050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.forestry.a063050

Ferrarezi RS, Testezlaf R (2017) Automated ebb-and-flow subirrigation for citrus liners production. II. Pests, diseases and nutrient concentration. Agricultural Water Management 192:21-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2017.06.017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2017.06.017

Ferrarezi RS, Weaver GM, Van Iersel MW, Testezlaf R (2015) Subirrigation:historical overview, challenges, and future prospects. HortTech 25(3): 262-276. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH.25.3.262 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH.25.3.262

Flinn DW, Homans P, Craig FG (1980) Survey of the nutrient status of Pinus radiata seedlings and of soil properties in three Victorian nurseries. Australian Forestry 43(1):58-66. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.1980.10674246 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.1980.10674246

Foster MA, Coffelt TA (2005) Guayule agronomics: establishment, irrigated production, and weed control. Industrial Crops and Products 22(1):27-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2004.06.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2004.06.006

Garcia G (1979) A portable irrigation system for remote sites.Fort Collins (CO). USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station:Research Note RM 374: 2 p.

Gerhold HD (1965) Growth and winter injury of Douglas fir in a three-year providence demonstration. In: Proceedings: Northeastern Forest Tree Improvement Conference: 50-63.

Gillman LS, James RL (1980) Fungicidal tolerance of Botrytis within Colorado greenhouses. Tree Planters' Notes 31(1): 25-28.

Goeppel AE (2014) Evaluating Jack pine seedling characteristics in response to drought and outplanting. MS thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton. 97 p.

Greene TA, Danley ST (2001) Hand-lifting improves field performance of loblolly pine seedlings. South J Appl For 25(3): 131-135. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/25.3.131 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/25.3.131

Grossnickle SC (2012) Why seedlings survive: importance of plant attributes. New Forest 43(5-6): 711-738. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9336-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9336-6

Grossnickle SC (2019) Application of a PhotoThermal model for container-grown conifer seedling production. Reforesta (8): 1-16. https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.8.01.71 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.8.01.71

Grossnickle SC, Kiiskila SB, Haase DL (2020) Seedling ecophysiology: five questions to explore in the nursery for optimizing subsequent field success. Tree Planters' Notes 63(2):112-127.

Guehl JM, Clement A, Kaushal P, Aussenac G (1993) Planting stress, water status and non-structural carbohydrate concentrations in Corsican pine seedlings. Tree Physiol 12(2): 173-183. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/12.2.173 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/12.2.173

Haase DL, Pike C, Enebak S, Mackey L, Ma Z, Rathjen M (2019) Forest nursery seedling production in the United States -Fiscal year 2018. Tree Planters' Notes62(1-2): 20-24.

Hahn PF (1983) Containerized seedling production in a shelterhouse system. In: 1982 Western Nurserymen's Conference. Ashland (OR) Southern Oregon State College: 110-128.

Hart J, O'Keefe K, Augustine SP, McCulloh KA (2020) Physiological responses of germinant Pinus palustris and P. taeda seedlings to water stress and the significance of the grass-stage. For Ecol Manage 458: 117647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.117647 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.117647

Hatzistathis AT (1973) Soil moisture effects on stomata aperture, plant water stress and growth of Scotch and loblolly pine seedlings. MS thesis, University of Georgia, Athens. 22 p.

Heiskanen J (1993) Favourable water and aeration conditions for growth media used in containerized tree seedling production: A review. Scandinavian J For Res 8(1-4): 337-358. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827589309382782 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02827589309382782

Heiskanen J (1995) Irrigation regime affects water and aeration conditions in peat growth medium and the growth of containerized Scots pine seedings. New Forest 9(3): 181-195. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00035486 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00035486

Helgerson OT (1990) Heat damage in tree seedlings and its prevention. New Forest 3(4): 333-358.

https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00030044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00030044

Hennessey TC, Dougherty PM (1984) Characterization of the internal water relations of loblolly pine seedlings in response to nursery cultural treatments: Implications for reforestation success. In: Seedling physiology and reforestation success. Springer, Dordrecht: 225-243. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6137-1_10 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6137-1_10

Hipps NA, Hipps KH, Collard LG (1997) Effects of root wrenching and irrigation rate on the growth and water relations of Castanea sativa and Quercus robur seedlings in the nursery and after outplanting. Can J For Res 27(2): 180-188. https://doi.org/10.1139/x96-175 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/x96-175

Hilszczanska D (2004) Mycorrhizal status of Scots pine Pinus sylvestris L. seedlings grown in watered and non-watered nursery condition. Dendrobiology 52:23-28.

Hodgson J (2011) Repetitive reaction and restitution (R3) induction of drought hardiness in conifer container seedlings. In: Riley LE, Haase DL, Pinto JR (eds) Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations-2010. Fort Collins (CO) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: RMRS-P-65: 83-86.

Hubbel KL (2015) Improved forest tree seedling production guidelines for Haiti. MS thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow. 58 p.

Huberman MA (1935) Illustrated summary of Stuart Forest Nursery practice and research. Forest History Society, Durham, NC:175 p.

Ingram DL, Hall CR, Knight J (2016) Carbon footprint and variable costs of production components for a container-grown evergreen shrub using life cycle assessment: An east coast US model. HortSci 51(8): 989-994. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.51.8.989 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.51.8.989

Jackson DP, South (2011) Pine bark mulch increases seed efficiency of loblolly pine in a pendimethalin trial. Auburn University (AL) Auburn University Southern Forest Nursery Management Cooperative: Research Report 11-05: 8 p.

Johnson HH (1960) Effect of irrigation, fertilization, and plant density on growth and chemical composition of slash pine seedlings. MS thesis, University of Georgia, Athens. 53 p.

Jones NB, Ford CM, Light ME, Nadel RL, Greyling I, Fourie G, Wingfield, MJ, Morris AR (2014)Effect on nursery and field performance of Pinus patula seedlings after inoculation with Fusarium circinatum. Southern Forests 76(3):125-136. https://doi.org/10.2989/20702620.2014.916503 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2989/20702620.2014.916503

Juntunen ML, Rikala R (2001) Fertilization practice in Finnish forest nurseries from the standpoint of environmental impact. New Forest 21(2): 141-158. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011837800185 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011837800185

Juzwik J, Gust KM, Allmaras RR (1999) Influence of cultural practices on edaphic factors related to root disease in Pinus nursery seedlings. Plant and Soil 207(2): 195-208. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026441014147 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026441014147

Kainer KA, Duryea ML (1990) Root wrenching and lifting date of slash pine:effects on morphology, survival, and growth. New Forest 4(3): 207-221. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00118878 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00118878

Kaushal P, Aussenac G (1989) Transplanting shock in Corsican pine and Cedar of Atlas seedlings: Internal water deficits, growth and root regeneration. Forest Ecology and Management 27(1): 29-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(89)90080-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(89)90080-7

Kildisheva OA, Aghai MM, Bouazza K, Davis AS (2017) Improving restoration success through research-driven initiatives: case studies targeting Pinus pinea reforestation stock development in Lebanon. Plant Ecology 218(1):39-53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-016-0632-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-016-0632-7

Kissee KK, Newton RJ, Carroll L (1985) Loblolly seedling genotypic xylem pressure potential responses to cutting practices in the nursery. In: South DB (ed) The International Symposium on Nursery Management Practices for the Southern Pines. Auburn University, AL: 311-316.

Klimek A, Rolbiecki S, Rolbiecki R, Hilszczañska D, Malczyk P (2008) Impact of chosen bare root nursery practices in Scots pine seedling quality and soil mites (Acari). Polish Journal of Environmental Studies 17(2):247-255.

Knox GW (1989) Water use and average growth index of five species of container grown woody landscape plants. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 7(4): 136-139. https://doi.org/10.24266/0738-2898-7.4.136 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24266/0738-2898-7.4.136

Kolb PF, Robberecht R (1996) High temperature and drought stress effects on survival of Pinus ponderosa seedlings. Tree Physiol 16(8):665-672. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/16.8.665 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/16.8.665

Kulac S, Turna I, Cicek E, Sağlam AYKUT, Taşdemir ÜMİT (2015) Early field performance of drought-stressed scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings. Pak J Bot 47: 1317-1324.

Lamar RT, Davey CB (1988) Comparative effectivity of three Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh, vesicular‐arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a high‐phosphorus nursery soil. New Phytol 109(2):171-181. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1988.tb03706.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1988.tb03706.x

Lamhamedi MS, Labbé L, Margolis HA, Stowe DC, Blais L, Renaud M (2006) Spatial variability of substrate water content and growth of white spruce seedlings. Soil Science Society of America Journal 70(1): 108-120. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2005.0109 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2005.0109

Landhäusser SM, Pinno BD, Lieffers VJ, Chow PS (2012) Partitioning of carbon allocation to reserves or growth determines future performance of aspen seedlings. For Ecol Manage 275: 43-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.03.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.03.010

Landis TD, Dumroese K, Chandler R (2006) Subirrigation trials with native plants. Forest Nursery Notes 26(3): 14-15.

Landis TD, Khadduri N, Haase DL (2015) Frost protection with irrigation: taking another look. Forest Nursery Notes 35(1-2): 4-11.

Landis TD, Wilkinson K (2004) Subirrigation: a better option for broad-leaved container nursery crops? Forest Nursery Notes 24(2): 14-17.

Landis TD, Tinus RW, McDonald SE, Barnett JP (1989) Seedling nutrition and irrigation, Volume 4. In: The Container Tree Nursery Manual. Washington (DC). USDA Forest Service: Agriculture Handbook 674: 119 p.

Lavender DP (1984) Plant physiology and nursery environment interactions affecting seedling growth. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) Forest Nursery Manual. MartinusNijhoff/Junk Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands, pp133-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_14 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_14

Lavender DP, Cleary BD (1974) Coniferous seedling production techniques to improve seedlings establishment. In: Tinus RW, Stein WI, Balmer WE (eds) Proceedings: North American Containerized Forest Tree Seedling Symposium. Publication 68. Great Plains Agric. Council, Denver, CO:177-180.

Lilja A, Heiskanen J, Heinonen R (1998) Effects of irrigation on uninucleate Rhizoctonia on nursery seedlings of Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies grown in peat growth medium. Scan J Forest Res 13(1-4): 184-188. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827589809382975 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02827589809382975

Lopushinsky W (1990) Seedling moisture status. In: Rose R, Campbell SJ, Landis TD (eds) Proceedings: Target seedling symposium. Fort Collins (CO) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: GTR RM-200:123-138

Luoranen J (2018) Autumn versus spring planting: the initiation of root growth and subsequent field performance of Scots pine and Norway spruce seedlings. Silva Fennica 52(2): 7813.

https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7813 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.7813

Luoranen J, Rikala R (2013) Field performance of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings planted in disc trenched or mounded sites over an extended planting season. New Forest 44(2): 147-162.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9307-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9307-y

Machado PS, Alfenas AC, Coutinho MM, Silva CM, Mounteer AH, Maffia LA, Freitas RG, Freitas CS (2013) Eradication of plant pathogens in forest nursery irrigation water. Plant Dis 97(6): 780-788.

https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-08-12-0721-RE DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-08-12-0721-RE

Madrid-Aispuro RE, Prieto-Ruíz JÁ, Aldrete A, Hernández-Díaz JC, Wehenkel C, Chávez-Simental JA, Mexal JG (2020) Alternative substrates and fertilization doses in the production of Pinus cembroidesZucc. in Nursery. Forests 11(1):71. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11010071 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/f11010071

Marx DH:Artman JD (1978) Growth and ectomycorrhizal development of lobloblly pine seedlings in nursery soil infested with Pisolithus tinctorius and Thelephoraterrestris in Virginia.Asheville (NC) USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: Research Note SE-256: 4 p.

May JT (1984) Soil moisture. In: Lantz CW (ed) Southern Pine Nursery Handbook. Atlanta (GA) USDA Forest Service, State and Private Forestry: 1101-1119.

May JT, Johnson HH, Walsh CS (1961) Growth of pine seedlings in relation to soil moisture in nursery beds. Macon (GA) Georgia Forest Research Council: Research Paper 5:6 p.

McClain KM (1986) Water relations and associated morphology of conditioned Douglas-fir and jack pine seedlings subjected to periods of drought stress. PhD thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 258 p.

McDonald SE (1978) Irrigation monitoring in western forest tree nurseries. In: Proceedings: nurseryman's conference and seed processing workshop, Eureka (CA) Nursery Council Meeting: 16-42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.99763

McDonald SE (1984) Irrigation in forest-tree nurseries: monitoring and effects on seedling growth. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) Forest Nursery Manual. MartinusNijhoff/Junk Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands, pp 107-121. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_12 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_12

McGrath DA, Duryea ML (1994) Initial moisture stress, budbreak and two-year field performance of three morphological grades of slash pine seedlings. New Forest 8(4): 335-350. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00036733

McNabb KL (1985) The relationship of carbohydrate reserves to the quality of bare-root Pinus elliottii var. elliottii(Engelm.) seedlings produced in a northern Florida nursery. PhD thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville. 146 p.

Meier CE, Newton RJ, Puryear JD, Sen S (1992) Physiological responses of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings to drought stress: osmotic adjustment and tissue elasticity. Journal of Plant Physiology 140 (6): 754-760. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0176-1617(11)81034-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0176-1617(11)81034-5

Mena-Petite A, Ortega-Lasuen U, González-Moro MB, Lacuesta M, Muñoz-Rueda A (2001) Storage duration and temperature effect on the functional integrity of container and bare-root Pinus radiata D. Don stock-types. Trees 15(5): 289-296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004680100104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s004680100104

Menzies MI, Holden DG (1981) Seasonal frost-tolerance of Pinus radiata, Pinus muricate and Pseudotsuga menziesii. NZJ For Sci 11(2): 92-99.

Menzies MI, Holden DG, Klomp BK (2001) Recent trends in nursery practice in New Zealand. New Forest 22(1-2): 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012027013173 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012027013173

Menzies MI, Van Dorsser JC, Balneaves JM (1985) Seedling quality-radiata pine as a case study. In: South DB (ed) Proceedings: International Symposium on Nursery Management Practices for the Southern Pines. Auburn University, AL: 384-415.

Mexal JG, Khadduri N (2011) The role of plant water relations in achieving and maintaining the target seedling. In: Riley LE, Haase DL, Pinto JR (eds) Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations-2010. Fort Collins (CO) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: RMRS-P-65:98-109.

Mexal JG, Timmis R, Morris WG (1979) Cold-hardiness of containerized loblolly pine seedlings:its effect on field survival and growth. South J Appl For 3(1):15-19. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/3.1.15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/3.1.15

Mikola P (1969) Comparative observations on the nursery technique in different parts of the world. Acta ForestalFennica 98: 1-24. https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7608 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14214/aff.7608

Miller BD, Timmer V (1994) Steady-state nutrition of Pinus resinosa seedlings: response to nutrient loading, irrigation and hardening regimes. Tree Physiol 14(12): 1327-1338. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/14.12.1327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/14.12.1327

Mills WL, South DB (1984) Production costs in southern bareroot nurseries. Tree Planters' Notes 35(3):19-22.

Minko G (1976) Effects of irrigation on Pinus radiata seedling development in the Benalla Nursery. Victoria Forestry Commission, Forestry Technical Papers 24:27-36.

Minore D (1970) Seedling growth of eight northwestern tree species over three water tables. Portland (OR) USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Research: Note PNW-115: 8 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.70713 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.70713

Morby FE (1982) Irrigation regimes in a bare-root nursery. In: Huber RF (ed) Proceedings: 1981 intermountain nurserymen's association meeting. Edmonton (AB) Northern Forest Research Centre, Canadian Forestry Service: Information Report NOR-X-241: 55-59.

Morris WG, Greenwood MS (1977) Control of nursery seedling growth and development:controlled water stress versus wrenching. Hot Springs (AR) Weyerhaeuser: Tech. Rep. 04l-2009n7/3: 4 p.

Moser B, Kipfer T, Richter S, Egli S, Wohlgemuth T (2015) Drought resistance of Pinus sylvestris seedlings conferred by plastic root architecture rather than ectomycorrhizal colonization. Ann Forest Sci 72(3):303-309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-014-0380-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13595-014-0380-6

Munnecke DE, Kolbezen MJ, Bricker JL (1982) Effect of moisture, chloropicrin and methyl bromide singly and in mixture on sclerotia of Sclerotium rolfsii and Verticillium albo-atrum. Phytopathology 72: 1235-1238. https://doi.org/10.1094/Phyto-72-1235 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/Phyto-72-1235

Nakayama FS, Bucks DA, Roth RL, Gardner BR (1991) Guayule biomass production under irrigation. Bioresource Technology 35(2): 173-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-8524(91)90026-G DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-8524(91)90026-G

NRCS (1997) Irrigation guide. Washington (DC) USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Engineering Handbook 452.

Nuri, Ö, Figen E (2008) The comparisons between root collar diameter and height growth of black pine (Pinus nigra Arnold.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings in Bolu Forest Nursery. Journal of Applied Biological Sciences 2(1): 7-12.

Oleskog G, Sahlén K (2000) Effects of seedbed substrate on moisture conditions and germination of Pinus sylvestris seeds in a clearcut. Scan J Forest Res 15(2):225-236. https://doi.org/10.1080/028275800750015046 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/028275800750015046

Olson DS (1930) Growing trees for forest planting in Montana and Idaho. Washington (DC) USDA: Circular No. 120: 92 p.

Orchard MJ (1981) Wilding nurseries for native species. In: Chavasse CGR (ed) Proceedings:forest nursery and establishment practice in New Zealand. Rotorua (NZ) NZ Forest Service, FRI Symposium No. 22: 222-227.

Overton RP (2014) Measuring irrigation uniformity in bareroot nurseries; a case study. Tree Planters' Notes 57(3):23-31.

Papadopol CS (1990) Irrigation rate calculation for nursery crops. Tree Planters' Notes 41(4):22-27.

Pessin LJ (1938) Effect of soil moisture on the rate of growth of longleaf and slash pine seedlings. Plant Physiology 13(1):179-189. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.13.1.179 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.13.1.179

Peterson JA (1994) Needleless shoots and loss of apical dominance in greenhouse-grown loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.).Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg. 96 p.

Peterson J (1997) Growing environment and container type influence field performance of black spruce container stock. New Forest 13(1-3): 329-339. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006598611412

Pickens B (2012) Effects of extended cold storage on the survival and performance of container grown longleaf seedlings. In: Kush JS (ed) Proceedings: Longleaf Alliance Eighth Biennial Regional Conference. Andalusia, AL:86-91.

Pinto JR, Dumroese RK, Cobos DR (2009) Effects of irrigation frequency and grit color on the germination of lodgepole pine seeds. In: Dumroese RK, Riley LE (eds) Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations-2008. Fort Collins (CO) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: RMRS-P-58:52-57.

Pitton BJL, Hall CR, Haver DL, White SA, Oki LR (2018) A cost analysis for using recycled irrigation runoff water in container nursery production: a Southern California nursery case study. Irrigation Sci 36(4-5): 217-226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-018-0578-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-018-0578-8

Prévost M, Stein J, Plamondon AP (1989) Water balance and irrigation planning in a forest tree nursery. Can J For Res 19(5): 575-579. https://doi.org/10.1139/x89-090 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/x89-090

Prieto RJP, Domínguez Calleros PD, NávarChaidez JJ, Cornejo Oviedo EC (2004) Factores que influyenen la producción de planta de Pinus cooperiblancoenvivero. RevistaChapingo. Serie cienciasforestales y del ambiente 10(1): 63-70.

Rentz R (2019) Seedbed preparation and sowing in southern hardwood nurseries. In: McNabb K, Pike C (eds) Nursery Guide for the Production of Bareroot Hardwood Seedlings. Washington (DC) USDA Forest Service: Agriculture Handbook 733: 49-55.

Repo T, Heiskanen J, Sutinen ML, Sutinen R, Lehto T (2016) The responses of Scots pine seedlings to waterlogging in a fine-textured till soil. New Forest 48(1):51-65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-016-9555-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-016-9555-3

Retzlaff WA, Miller AE, Allen RM (1990) Comparison of container-grown Pinus taeda L. seedlings raised outdoors and in a growth chamber in sunlight. New Forest 4(3): 223-230. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00118879 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00118879

Retzlaff WA, South DB (1984) High soil moisture levels in the nursery can adversely affect loblolly pine seedling morphology. In: Lantz CW (ed) Proceedings:southern nursery conferences. Atlanta (GA): 158-167.

Retzlaff WA, South DB (1985) A simple method for determining a partial soil water retention curve. Tree Planters' Notes 36(4): 20-23.

Ribeiro MD, Ferrarezi RS, Testezlaf R (2014) Assessment of subirrigation performance in eucalyptus seedling production. HortTech 24(2):231-237. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH.24.2.231 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH.24.2.231

Rikala R, Repo T (1997) The effect of late summer fertilization on the frost hardening of second-year Scots pine seedlings. New Forest 14(1):33-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006505919556

Riley LE, Steinfeld D (2005) Effects of bareroot nursery practices on tree seedling root development: an evolution of cultural practices at J. Herbert Stone nursery. New Forest 30(2-3):107-126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-005-1379-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-005-1379-5

Robakowski P, Wyka TP, Kowalkowski W, Barzdajn W, Pers-Kamczyc E, Jankowski A, Politycka B (2020) Practical implications of different phenotypic and molecular responses of evergreen conifer and broadleaf deciduous forest tree species to regulated water deficit in a container nursery. Forests 11(9):1011. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11091011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/f11091011

Robbins J (2019) Irrigation management. In: McNabb K, Pike C (eds) Nursery Guide for the Production of Bareroot Hardwood Seedlings. Washington (DC) USDA Forest Service: Agriculture Handbook 733: 57-74.

Rook DA (1973) Conditioning radiata pine seedlings to transplanting by restricted watering. NZJ For Sci 3:54-69.

Rose R, Gleason J, Atkinson M, Sabin T (1991) Grading ponderosa pine seedlings for outplanting according to their root volume. West J Appl For 6(1): 11-15. https://doi.org/10.1093/wjaf/6.1.11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/wjaf/6.1.11

Rose R, Haase DL (1996) Irrigation for frost protection in forest nurseries: room for improvement. West J Appl For 11(1):16-19. https://doi.org/10.1093/wjaf/11.1.16 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/wjaf/11.1.16

Rose R, Haase DL, Kroiher F, Sabin T (1997) Root volume and growth of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir seedlings:a summary of eight growing seasons. West J Appl For 12(3): 69-73. https://doi.org/10.1093/wjaf/12.3.69 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/wjaf/12.3.69

Roth LF, Riker AJ (1943) Influence of temperature, moisture, and soil reaction on the damping-off of red pine seed. Journal of Agricultural Research 67(7):273-293.

Royo A, Gil L, Pardos JA (2001) Effect of water stress conditioning on morphology, physiology and field performance of Pinus halepensis Mill. seedlings. New Forest 21: 127-140. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011892732084 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011892732084

Ruehle JL, Marx DH, Barnett JP, Pawuk WH (1981) Survival and growth of container-grown and bare-root shortleaf pine seedlings with Pisolithus and The lephoraectomycorrhizae. South J Appl For 5(1): 20-24. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/5.1.20 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/5.1.20

Sadeghi SH, Peters T, Shafii B, Amini MZ, Stöckle C (2017) Continuous variation of wind drift and evaporation losses under a linear move irrigation system. Agricultural Water Management 182:39-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2016.12.009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2016.12.009

Salerno MI, Lori GA, Gimenez DO, Gimenez JE, Beltrano J (2000) Use of soil solarization to improve growth of eucalyptus forest nursery seedlings in Argentina. New Forest 20(3): 235-248. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006779308611 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006779308611

Sammis TW, Wu IP (1986) Fresh market tomato yields as affected by deficit irrigation using a micro-irrigation system. Agricultural Water Management 12(1-2): 117-126. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-3774(86)90010-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-3774(86)90010-7

Savory P (2005) Sprinkler uniformity in greenhouses and nurseries. International Plant Propagators' Society 55:206-207.

Schmal JL, Dumroese RK, Davis AS, Pinto JR, Jacobs DF (2011) Subirrigation for production of native plants in nurseries-concepts, current knowledge, and implementation. Native Plants Journal 12(2): 81-93. https://doi.org/10.3368/npj.12.2.81 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3368/npj.12.2.81

Schooler J (2011) Unpublished results hide the decline effect. Nature 470(7335): 437. https://doi.org/10.1038/470437a DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/470437a

Schultz L, Stoleson R (1967) A precision sprinkler for soil moisture studies. Tree Planters' Notes 18(1): 15-17.

Seiler JR (1984) Physiological response of loblolly pine seedlings to moisture-stress conditioning and their subsequent performance during water stress. PhD thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg. 198 p.

Semerci A, Semerci H, Çalişkan B, Cicek N, Ekmekçi Y, Mencuccini M (2017) Morphological and physiological responses to drought stress of European provenances of Scots pine. European Journal of Forest Research 136(1): 91-104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-016-1011-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-016-1011-6

Shi W, Grossnickle SC, Li G, Su S, Liu Y (2019) Fertilization and irrigation regimes influence on seedling attributes and field performance of Pinus tabuliformisCarr. Forestry 92(1): 97-107. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpy035 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpy035

Shirley HL, Meuli LJ (1939) Influence of moisture supply on drought resistance of conifers. Jour Agr Res 59: 1-21.

Skilling DD, Slayton SH (1970) Winter injury by ice and snow to red pine nursery. Tree Planters' Notes 21(1):29-30.

Sloan JP (1992) Effects of nursery fertilizer and irrigation on ponderosa and lodgepole pine seedling size. Boise (ID) USDA Forest Service: Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: Research Note INT-408: 8 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.79478 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.79478

Smit J, van den Driessche R (1992) Root growth and water use efficiency of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii (Mirb.) Franco) and lodgepole pine (Pinus contortaDougl.) seedlings. Tree Physiol 11(4):401-410. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/11.4.401 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/11.4.401

Snyder RL, Melo-Abreu JD (2005) Frost protection: fundamentals, practice and economics. Volume 1. Frost protection:fundamentals, practice and economics. 240 p.

South DB (1986) Economics of seed efficiency. J For 84(3): 32-35.

South DB (1987) Economic aspects of nursery seed efficiency. South J Appl For 11(2): 106-109.

https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/11.2.106 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/11.2.106

South DB (2007) Freeze injury to roots of southern pine seedlings in the USA, Southern Hemisphere Forestry Journal 69:3: 151-156. https://doi.org/10.2989/SHFJ.2007.69.3.3.353 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2989/SHFJ.2007.69.3.3.353

South DB, Carey WA (1999) Excessive rainfall prior to lifting adversely affects seedling physiology. In: Landis TD, Barnett JP (eds) Proceedings:Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations-1998. Asheville (NC) USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station: GTR SRS-25:63-64.

South DB, Harris SW, Barnett JP, Hainds MJ, Gjerstad DH (2005) Effect of container type and seedling size on survival and early height growth of Pinus palustris seedlings in Alabama, USA. For Ecol Manage 204(2-3): 385-398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2004.09.016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2004.09.016

South DB, Mitchell RJ (1999) Determining the" optimum" slash pine seedling size for use with four levels of vegetation management on a flatwoods site in Georgia, USA. Can J For Res 29(7):1039-1046. https://doi.org/10.1139/x99-048 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/x99-048

South DB, Nadal RL, Enebak SA, Bickerstaff G (2018) The nutrition of loblolly pine seedlings exhibits both positive (soil) and negative (foliage) correlations with seedling mass. Tree Planters' Notes 61(2): 5-17.

South DB, Starkey TE (2010) Too much rain can reduce survival of container-grown pine seedlings. NZJ For 55(3): 16-19.

South DB, Starkey TE, Enebak SA (2016) Forest nursery practices in the southern United States. Reforesta 1(1): 106-146. https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.1.07.7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.1.07.7

South DB, Williams HM, Webb A (1988) Should fall irrigation be applied at nurseries located on sands? South J Appl For 12(4): 273-274. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/12.4.273 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/12.4.273

South DB, Williams HM, Webb A (1989) Costs and benefits from fall irrigation at a sandy loblolly pine nursery. Applied Agricultural Research 4(4):275-279.

St John (2018) Addressing seedling production challenges for Hispaniolanpine and snowberry. MS thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis. 115 p.

Stanosz GR, Blodgett JT, Smith DR, Kruger EL (2001) Water stress and Sphaeropsissapinea as a latent pathogen of red pine seedlings. New Phytol 149(3): 531538. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-8137.2001.00052.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-8137.2001.00052.x

Starkey TE (2002) Irrigation and fertilization type, rate and frequency of application. In: Barnett JP, Dumroese RK, Moorhead DJ (eds) Proceedings: Growing longleaf pine in containers. 1999 and 2001 workshops. Asheville (NC) USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station:GTR SRS-56: 30-34.

Starkey TE, Enebak, SA (2012) Control of Rhizoctonia foliar blight in forest seedling nurseries: a 3-year study. Research Report 12-06. Auburn University (AL) Auburn University Southern Forest Nursery Management Cooperative: Research Report 12-06: 15 p.

Starkey TE, Enebak, SA (2016) Seedling quality and root architecture of loblolly and longleaf pine container seedlings. Auburn University (AL) Auburn University Southern Forest Nursery Management Cooperative: Research Report 16-06: 24 p.

Starkey TE, Enebak, SA, South DB (2015) Forest seedling nursery practices in the southern United States:container nurseries. Tree Planters' Notes 58(1):4-17.

Stewart-Wade SM (2011) Plant pathogens in recycled irrigation water in commercial plant nurseries and greenhouses:their detection and management. Irrigation Sci 29(4): 267-297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-011-0285-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-011-0285-1

Stoeckeler JH, Aamodt E (1940) Use of tensiometers in regulating watering in forest nurseries. Plant Physiol 15(4):589-607. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.15.4.589 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.15.4.589

Stoeckeler JH, Jones GW (1957) Forest nursery practice in the Lake States. Washington (DC) USDA Forest Service: Agriculture Handbook 110: 124 p.

Stoeckeler JH, Slabaugh PE (1965) Conifer nursery practice in the Prairie-Plains. Washington (DC). USDA Forest Service: Agricultural Handbook 279: 98 p.

Stowe DC, Lamhamedi MS, Carles S, Fecteau B, Margolis HA, Renaud M, Bernier PY (2010) Managing irrigation to reduce nutrient leaching in containerized white spruce seedling production New Forest 40(2): 185-204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-010-9193-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-010-9193-0

Suckling PW (1986) Fluctuations of last spring-freeze dates in the southeastern United States. Physical Geography 7(3):239-245.https://doi.org/10.1080/02723646.1986.10642294 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02723646.1986.10642294

Sudworth GB (1900) The forest nursery: collection of tree seeds and propagation of seedlings. Washington (DC) USDA Division of Forestry: Bulletin 29: 63 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.110504 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.110504

Sung SS, Black CC, Kormanik TL, Zarnoch SJ, Kormanik PP, Counce PA (1997) Fall nitrogen fertilization and the biology of Pinus taeda seedling development. Can J For Res 27(9): 1406-1412. https://doi.org/10.1139/x97-112 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/x97-112

Sword MA, Tinus RW, Barnett JP (1999) Evaluating the cold hardiness of containerized grown longleaf pine seedlings. In: Landis TD, Barnett JP (eds) Proceedings:Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations-1998. Asheville (NC) USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station: GTR SRS-25: 50-52.

Thompson BE (1984) Establishing a vigorous nursery crop: bed preparation, seed sowing, and early seedling growth. In: Duryea ML, Landis TD (eds) Forest Nursery Manual. MartinusNijhoff/Junk Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands, pp 41-49. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6110-4_5

Tillotson CR (1917) Nursery practice on the national forests. Washington (DC) USDA Forest Service: Bulletin 479: 86 p. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.108334 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.108334

Timmer VR, Armstrong G (1989) Growth and nutrition of containerized Pinus resinosa seedlings at varying moisture regimes. New Forest 3(2): 180-189. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00021580 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00021580

Timmer VR, Miller BD (1991) Effects of contrasting fertilization and moisture regimes on biomass, nutrients, and water relations of container grown red pine seedlings. New Forest 5(4): 335-348. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00118861 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00118861

Tinus RW (1996) Root growth potential as an indicator of drought stress history. Tree Physiol 16(9):795-799. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/16.9.795 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/16.9.795

Tinus RW, McDonald SE (1979) How to grow seedlings in containers in greenhouses. Fort Collins (CO) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:GTR RM-60: 256 p.

Toumey JW, Korstian CF (1942) Seeding and planting in the practice of forestry. 3rd Edition, John Wiley, New York.

Tran N, Stoochnoff J, Graham T, Downey A, Dixon M (2018) Irrigation management to enhance the quality, efficiency, and survival of transplanted nursery trees. Acta Horticulturae 1205: 447-452. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2018.1205.54 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2018.1205.54

Trautman WL, Iyer JG (1967) Growth of Monterey pine seedlings in outwash sand improved by syenitic granite with excessive watering. Tree Planters' Notes 18(3): 27-29.

Ursic SJ (1961) Tolerance of loblolly pine seedlings to soil moisture stress. Ecology 42(4): 823-825. https://doi.org/10.2307/1933515 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1933515

Vaartaja O, Bumbieris M (1967) Organisms associated with root rots of conifers in South Australian nurseries. Plant Disease Report 51:473-476.

Vallas-Cuesta J, Villar-Salvador P, Peñuelas RJL, Herrero SN, Domínguez LS, Nicolás PJL (1999) Efecto del aviveramientoprolongado sin riegoen la calidad functional de los brinzales de Pinus halepensis y sudesarrolloen campo. Montes 58: 51-58.

van den Driessche R (1969) Forest Nursery Handbook. Victoria (BC) British Columbia Forest Service:Research Note 48: 124 p.

van den Driessche R (1991) Influence of container nursery regimes on drought resistance of seedlings following planting. I. Survival and growth. Can J For Res 21(5): 555-565. https://doi.org/10.1139/x91-077 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/x91-077

van den Driessche R (1992) Changes to drought resistance and root growth capacity of container seedlings in response to nursery drought, nitrogen, and potassium treatments. Can J For Res 22(5): 740-749. https://doi.org/10.1139/x92-100 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/x92-100

Venator CR, Mexal JG (1981) The effect of wrenching and planting date on the survival of loblolly pine seedlings. In: Proceedings: Barnett JP (ed) 1st Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research Conference. New Orleans (LA): USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station: GTR SO-34: 20-24.

Villar-Salvador P, Ocaña L, Peñuelas J, Carrasco I (1999) Effect of water stress conditioning on the water relations, root growth capacity, and the nitrogen and non-structural carbohydrate concentration of Pinus halepensis Mill. (Aleppo pine) seedlings. Ann For Sci 56(6): 459-465. https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:19990602 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1051/forest:19990602

Villar-Salvador P, Peñuelas JL, Jacobs DF (2013) Nitrogen nutrition and drought hardening exert opposite effects on the stress tolerance of Pinus pinea L. seedlings. Tree Physiol 33(2): 221-232. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps133 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/tps133

Villar-Salvador P, Puértolas J, Cuesta B, Penuelas JL, Uscola M, Heredia-Guerrero N, Benayas JMR (2012) Increase in size and nitrogen concentration enhances seedling survival in Mediterranean plantations. Insights from an ecophysiological conceptual model of plant survival. New Forest 43(5-6): 755-770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9328-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9328-6

Wakeley PC (1954) Planting the southern pines. Washington (DC) USDA: Agriculture Monograph 18: 233 p.

Wallich E, Stevens T (2003) Managing crop uniformity in Weyerhaeuser nurseries. In: Riley LE, Dumroese RK, Landis TD (eds) Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations-2002. Ogden (UT) USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: RMRS-P28: 144-150.

Walsh C (1954) Some relationships between certain climatic and edaphic factors and first year growth of loblolly pine seedlings. MS thesis, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn. 74 p.

Wang D, Fraedrich SW, Juzwik J, Spokas K, Zhang Y, Koskinen WC (2006) Fumigant distribution in forest nursery soils under water seal and plastic film after application of dazomet, metam‐sodium and chloropicrin. Pest Management Sci 62(3): 263-273. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1164 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.1164

Warmund MR, Guinan P, Fernandez G (2008) Temperatures and cold damage to small fruit crops across the eastern United States associated with the April 2007 freeze. HortSci 43(6):1643-1647. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.43.6.1643 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.43.6.1643

Warsaw AL, Fernandez RT, Cregg BM, Andersen JA (2009) Container-grown ornamental plant growth and water runoff nutrient content and volume under four irrigation treatments. HortSci 44:1573-1580. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.44.6.1573 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.44.6.1573

Weatherly C (2019) Seedling lifting, packing, and storage at the ArborGen Bluff City Nursery. In: McNabb K, Pike C (eds) Nursery Guide for the Production of Bareroot Hardwood Seedlings. Washington (DC) USDA Forest Service: Agriculture Handbook 733: 159-168.

Wenny DL, Dumroese RK (1987) A growing regime for containerized ponderosa pine seedlings. Moscow (ID) University of Idaho, Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station: Bull 43: 9 p.

Werres S, Wagner S, Brand T, Kaminski K, Seipp D(2007) Survival of Phytophthora ramorum in recirculating irrigation water and subsequent infection of rhododendron and viburnum. Plant Disease 91(8): 1034-1044. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-91-8-1034 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-91-8-1034

White SA, Owen JS, Majsztrik JC, Oki LR, Fisher PR, Hall CR, Lea-Cox JD, Fernandez RT (2019) Greenhouse and nursery water management characterization and research priorities in the USA. Water 11(11):2338. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112338 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/w11112338

Williams HM, South DB, Webb A (1988) Effects of fall irrigation on morphology and root growth potential of loblolly pine seedlings growing in sand. South African Forestry Journal 147(1): 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1080/00382167.1988.9628963 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00382167.1988.9628963

Wilson MA (2017) Optimization of overhead irrigation in relation to irrigation water use efficiency in the Louisiana nursery industry. MS thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. 97p.

Wright J, Benson F (1981) Cost comparisons of alternative irrigation systems. Fact Sheet 34, Agricultural Extension Service, University of Minnesota, St. Paul. 2 p.

Zaerr JB, Cleary BD, Jenkinson JL (1981) Scheduling irrigation to induce seedling dormancy. In: Proceedings: Joint meeting, Intermountain Nurserymen's Assoc. and Western Forest Nursery Council. Ogden (UT) USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: GTR INT-109:74-79.

Zak B (1961) Aeration and other soil factors affecting southern pines as related to littleleaf disease. Asheville (NC) USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: Technical Bulletin 1248:30 p.

Downloads

Additional Files

Published

2020-12-30 — Updated on 2021-01-05

Versions

How to Cite

South, David B., and Ryan Nadel. “Irrigation in Pine Nurseries”. REFORESTA, no. 10 (January 5, 2021): 40–83. Accessed March 29, 2024. https://journal.reforestationchallenges.org/index.php/REFOR/article/view/128.

Issue

Section

Review articles

Similar Articles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 > >> 

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.

Loading...