Barren laterite lands are available plenty in Kasargode District of Kerala, India and being used mainly for extracting laterite bricks for building construction. These lands are found barren due to lack of vegetation and rocky nature. Afforestation in these lands is very essential to avoid extraction of laterite bricks so as to prevent degradation of lands. To develop vegetation in these laterite lands the soil properties of laterite was examined as a first step of afforestation process.  It was found that the soils have lack of plant growth promoting microbes (PGPM) and poor in major nutrients (N, P, K). Therefore, the PGPM specifically arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus fasciculatum and Glomus geosporum) and bacteria (Azospirillum brasilense and Bacillus megaterium) were used for afforestation in laterite lands along with Swietenia macrophylla G. King a commercially important tree of Kerala, India. The laterite soils were collected and used as potting media for growing seedlings of S. macrophylla in nursery and the cultured PGPM were inoculated in to the seedlings of S. macrophylla and maintained for 3 months. The PGPM inoculated seedlings showed improved growth, biomass and nutrient uptake. Thereafter the seedlings were transplanted at laterite lands at Karmanthodi, Bovikanam, Kasargode, Kerala, India and monitored their growth for 12 months. The seedlings inoculated with PGPM showed up to 98% survival rate with improved growth. From this study it was understood that PGPM have the potential to increase the efficiency of plant growth system in S. macrophylla seedlings through supply of essential levels of N, P and K that helped for successful afforestation in hardy laterite lands.

Introduced in 1750 as an ornamental tree and then in 1852 as a forest tree species, black locust occupied nowadays 250,000 ha in Romania. The tree species is important for its wood (lumber, poles, firewood, etc.), its honey-related production as well as its environmental role (afforestation of sand dunes and sterile dumps).

One of the most important activities in the middle basin of Jiu River is coal mining. After 1956 this activity has developed very quickly and two power plants were built in Rovinari and Turceni. As a result, sterile dumps and coal ash dumps have established so it was necessary to restore the area by afforestation. This activity started with the sterile dump Viaduct Rovinari, using Austrian pine and black locust, and continued with others such as Cocoreni and Moi. The most used tree species for ecological restoration was black locust. In order to express the stand structure, diameter at breast height (DBH), total height (H) and crown diameter were measured. The soil analysis were performed and showed differences in the content of heavy metals and radionuclides for both location. The study revealed positive correlations between DBH and H, a stronger one for Moi plantation. Our research highlights the capacity of black locust to establish and grow under very difficult site conditions.  

Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) is one of the most important deciduous tree species in the Serbian and European forests. Different negative factors limit natural regeneration of pedunculate oak forests, so producing of high quality seedlings becomes imperative to ensure successful forest restoration. This research was conducted with to aim to determine whether acorn size is related to seedlings quality. Acorns were collected from the natural pedunculate oak forest and divided into two groups by their size. Acorns were sown in the spring into plastic containers after five months cold storage. Size of acorns was in the standard species range, though germination was low (< 20 %). Germination was more then double in group of large acorns in comparison to group of smaller acorns (19.2 %, respectively 8.6 %). Height and root collar diameter of produced seedlings were lower than seedlings produced in seedbeds in commercial nurseries in Serbia, but it was in range of container produced seedlings in some similar researches. Height to root collar diameter ratio and shoot to root ratio were considered as satisfactory for containerized seedlings. There was not strong correlation between acorn size and seedlings quality attributes.

This review covers most of the published literature on potassium (K) fertilization in bareroot seedbeds with the intent to concentrate on the southern United States. The timing and rates of K fertilization for bareroot seedlings are often based on logic and myths and, as a result, K recommendations vary considerably. Some recommend bareroot pine seedlings be fertilized with twice as much K as nitrogen (N) while others apply less than 100 kg ha^-1. It was determined that several long-held claims about K fertilization are invalid. Nursery seedbeds do not need to contain four times as much available K as N and the belief that extra K fertilization will increase freeze tolerance or drought resistance of non-deficient seedlings is invalid. There are no data to support the claim that K fertilization increases root growth or assists in the formation of terminal buds. For sandy seedbeds, there is no need to apply K before sowing. Adding extra K during the fall does not increase seedling morphology or seedling performance when loblolly pine seedlings, at lifting, have more than 0.5% K in needles. A reduction of K fertilization can be achieved by reviewing foliar tests prior to K top-dressings.

The location of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela in the tropical region of northern South America, in the Northern Hemisphere, with a total area of 91.64 million ha, of which 49.6 million correspond to natural forests (54.12 % of the national territory). Venezuela shows a series of geographic advantages that allow a rapid growth and development of the trees in comparison with the temperate zones where the growth is extremely slow. However, the occurrence of deforestation processes has intensified in a sustained way in the recent history of the country.

In the period from 1920 to 2008, the loss of 26.43% of the forested area has been recorded. Likewise, in the period 1975-1988, deforestation was estimated at 216,000 ha year^-1, equivalent to 2.9 million ha in 13 years (Catalan 1992). Deforestation has now increased to worrying levels and according to FAO estimates (2010), in Venezuela, a forested area of more than 288.000 ha year^-1 is deforested.

In the middle of the 20^th century several public and private institutions began an important effort to reforest areas of sandy soils of scarce depth on a bed of highly impermeable clay. With erosion processes generated as a result of strong winds that causes severe damage to the little existing vegetation. It was expected that with the passage of time this region could become a desert in the oriental plains of Venezuela. This is how the Maderas del Orinoco Companies (CVG - PROFORCA), the Venezuelan Corporation of Guayana (CVG), Smurfit Kappa Cartón of Venezuela, San Carlos Forestry Development, Masisa. Propulso, among others, started in different regions of the country the establishment of plantations for various purposes. For this they have used fast growing forest species such as: Pinus caribaea var hondurensis, Eucalyptus Urophylla, Acacia magnium, Caraipa llanorum, Tectonia grandis, Hebea brasiliens, Gmelina arborea, Erisma uncinatum, among others. At present, a reforested area of 650.000 ha has been reached. This has favored the protection of natural habitats by reducing the pressure for exploitation and use of the forests.

The legal framework established in the new National Constitution, approved in 1998, is based on decrees of 1825-1829 of the Liberator Simón Bolívar and classifies the territory in diverse forest areas establishing a modern environmental conservation policy. A historical summary and the current legislation with the classification that promises a rational management of the national territory is presented.

Two schools of thought address the optimum soil pH (measured in water) for growing hardwood seedlings in bareroot nurseries. One school uses nutrient surveys in non-fertilized forests to determine the best pH range for growing seedlings in fertilized nurseries. Some students of this school believe hardwood seedlings grow best at pH 6.0 to 7.5. In contrast, another school relies on research from pH trials to conclude that fertilized hardwoods can grow well in soils that range from pH 4.5 to 6.0. This article compiles some of the findings from seedbed and greenhouse trials and attempts to use data to dispel a few myths about the “optimum pH” for growing hardwood seedlings. Greenhouse trials suggest many fertilized hardwoods grow better in acid soils (pH 4-6) than in nearly neutral soils (pH 6.0-7.5). The optimal pH for growth differs among species and, therefore, it is a myth that all hardwood seedlings grow best at pH 6 to 7.5. Most nursery managers in the southern United States grow bareroot hardwoods between pH 4.8 and 6.0.

The paper presents the growth characteristics of one-year-old seedlings of three autochthonous oak species (Fagaceae family): Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.), Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto Ten.) and downy oak (Quercus pubescens Willd.) in suboptimal growing conditions. The analyzed oak species are widely distributed in Serbia. One of the most important benefits of oak species is wood production (Hungarian and Turkey oak), and they have a promising role for the use in the future regarding the climate change as all species can be encountered on dry sites. Acorns were collected in the autumn of 2017 in natural stands and a sample of 400 acorns per each oak species was immediately sown in a nursery seedbed in the form of a random block system with four replicates. At the end of 2018, the available sample of seedlings was analyzed morphometrically. The seedlings were classified according to the number of shoot growth flushes into one-flush-growth and multi-flush growth seedlings. Turkey Oak had the highest number of seedlings which also recorded higher values in total height, root collar diameter and number of leaves. These results were obtained on alkaline soil with the presence of weeds and rodents and the absence of irrigating. The presence of multi-flush growth was recorded in all three oak species. Differences between analyzed three oak species exist in these suboptimal conditions. However, in full light conditions, a similar growth pattern was recorded, indicating to the similar adaptability of the species.

Artificial forest regeneration using nursery produced growing stock is commonplace in the Pacific Northwest. High quality seedlings are needed for outplanting success, which depends on a seedling’s ability to establish new roots and overcome stress. Containerized seedling stock is typically grown in artificial growing media. Peat, a popular component of growing media, is a non-renewable resource. Biochar has similar physical attributes to peat, which makes it a potential alternative.  In our study, we grew Douglas-fir seedlings in containers with biochar-amended peat-based growing media to determine if biochar could improve seedling quality. Douglas-fir seeds were sown in March 2016 and seedlings were grown under standard light and temperature conditions at an operational forest nursery for nine months. After nine months, seedling quality was assessed for height, diameter, cold hardiness, and root growth potential. Using biochar did not improve Douglas-fir seedling quality, except for slightly increasing cold hardiness and root growth potential for equivalently sized seedlings. Seedlings grown without biochar had increased height and diameter compared to seedlings with biochar and they had higher root growth potential (all dependent on fertilizer rates). Douglas-fir seedling quality might be improved with biochar amendment if negative growth impacts of soil reaction can be overcome.

Conifer somatic embryogenesis has long been recognized as an advanced vegetative propagation technology. Somatic embryogenesis provides a platform for capturing and long-term preservation of elite genotypes and developing commercial scale-up systems for mass production of plants. Although, significant success has been reported in improving conifer somatic embryogenic protocols, little has been presented to describe the complexity of integrating in vitro (laboratory) and ex-vitro (greenhouse) programs for developing a commercial production system capable of delivering tens of millions of conifer somatic seedlings. This integration requires both programs to run in concert and produce propagules capable of surviving and growing under greenhouse conditions at very early stages. It also requires the integration of seedling development events to ensure the production of quality seedlings that meet needs of the forest restoration program.

This paper describes the importance of protocol optimization for scaling-up the in vitro and ex vitro programs. The ‘biology of scaling’ is discussed in view of plant cell, embryo, germinant and somatic seedling requirements throughout the program. Logistical issues related to protocol optimization and scale-up are addressed. Specific control points for monitoring and controlling the commercial process are presented. The importance of developing standard operating procedures, media batch records, and quality control systems are discussed. Ultimately, a fully integrated system capable of producing tens of millions of conifer somatic seedlings is presented.

The present work demonstrates the effects of moist cold stratification on seed dormancy breaking in Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.). We also examined the fruit and seed morphology. Mature and ripe fruits were collected, the pulp removed and the seeds (stones) left in the sun to dry for three days. Four temperature regimes viz. 4°C, 6.5°C (natural conditions where the fruits were harvested), 10°C and 20°C were used for stimulating seed germination under total darkness. For each treatment, there were four replicates with 50 seeds incubated in a plastic container between two layers of moist sand at 15%. At the end of the experiment, non-germinating seeds were tested for viability using Tetrazolium chloride (TZ).  After 4 months, the final germination (FGP) was expressed as a percentage of the total number of seeds in each treatment. The fruits of Hawthorn were 14.9 ± 0.73 mm long and 15.1 ± 0.84 mm in diameter and weigh 2.05 ± 0.28 g. The seeds were 8.29 ± 0.43 mm long and 6.75 ± 0.39 mm in diameter and weigh (0.25 ± 0.04) g. The thousand-fruit weight was 2,000 g and of the thousand-seeds weight was 280 g. The statistical analysis indicated significant effect (p < 0.0001) of treatment on seed germination. Dormancy in this species was broken most effectively by cold stratification at 4°C and under natural conditions with 76% and 67.5% of FGP, respectively. Most of the nongerminated seeds of C. monogyna were viable (dormant) as judged by TZ.