Seeding of oak in southern Sweden
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.10.140Keywords:
Quercus, direct seeding, seed predation, ungulate browsing, afforestation, manager inexperienceAbstract
Sweden is known for its coniferous forests, but two oak species occur in the south, Quercus robur and Q. petraea, in pure stands or mixed with other species. Oak forests have declined due to land use changes, industrial forestry favoring conifers, and browsing by wild ungulates. Oak grows best on deep, fertile soils but can survive on a range of sites, supporting high biodiversity, and have cultural, aesthetic, and recreational value. The temperate climate is expected to change, and the increased temperature and rainfall potentially will favor oak over other species. Historically, high sowing rates and low-cost labor contributed to successful oak establishment; planting has since become the main method. Interest in seeding is returning, but predation and germination risks make it less certain than planting. Site preparation and high seeding density can help mitigate losses where heavy acorn predation by rodents is expected. Competition from other vegetation requires intensive mechanical site preparation and periodic cleaning operations. Seeding is more successful on abandoned farmland with less rodent habitat and where agricultural practices can be used for site preparation and maintenance. Expensive fencing is required for protection from browsing, especially in the first 10 years. Restoration success requires regular assessment and management, with lower oak seedling densities acceptable if other species are present. Lack of experience among managers is a barrier; more information and communication about successful practices are needed.
Downloads
References
Aldea J, Dahlgren J, Holmström E, Löf M (2024) Current and future drought vulnerability for three dominant boreal tree species. Glob Change Biol 30:e17079. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17079 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17079
Anonymous (2009) Statistical yearbook of forestry. Official Statistics of Sweden, Swedish Forest Agency, Jönköping, Sweden.
Björse G, Bradshaw R (1998) 2000 years of forest dynamics in southern Sweden: suggestions for forest management. For Ecol Manag 104:15–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(97)00162-X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(97)00162-X
Bolte A, Ammer C, Löf M, Madsen P, Nabuurs G-J, Schall P, Spathelf P, Rock J (2009) Adaptive forest management in Central Europe – climate change, strategies and integrative concept. Scand J For Res 24:473–482. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827580903418224 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02827580903418224
Carbonnier C (1975) Produktionen av kulturbestånd av ek i södra Sverige. Studia Forestalia Suecica 125:1–89.
Drössler L, Attocchi G, Jensen AM (2012) Occurrence and management of oak in southern Swedish forests. Forstarchiv 83:163–169. https://doi.org/10.4432/0300-4112-83-163
Dyderski MK, Paz S, Frelich LE, Jagodzinski AM (2017) How much does climate change threaten European forest tree species distribution? Glob Change Biol 24:1150–1163. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13925 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13925
Gömöry D, Yakovlev I, Zhelev P, Jedináková J, Paule L (2001) Genetic differentiation of oak populations within the Quercus robur/Quercus petraea complex in Central and Eastern Europe. Heredity 86(5):557–563. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00874 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00874.x
Hannah L, Carr JL, Lankerani A (1995) Human disturbance and natural habitat: a biome level analysis of a global data set. Biodivers Conserv 4:128–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00137781 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00137781
Lindbladh M, Axelsson A-L, Hultberg T, Brunet J, Felton A (2014) From broadleaves to spruce – the borealization of southern Sweden. Scand J For Res 29:686–696. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827581.2014.960893 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02827581.2014.960893
Lodin I, Brukas V, Wallin I (2017) Spruce or not? Contextual and attitudinal drivers behind the choice of tree species in southern Sweden. For Policy Econ 83:191–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2016.11.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2016.11.010
Löf M, Madsen P (1998) Ek- och boksådd på skogsmark – ett alternativ till plantering? Fakta Skog 15/1998. SLU publikationstjänst, Uppsala, Sweden.
Löf M, Brunet J, Filyushkina A, Lindbladh M, Skovsgaard J-P, Felton A (2016) Management of oak forests: Striking a balance between timber production, biodiversity and cultural services. Int J Biodivers Sci, Ecosyst Serv Manag 12:59–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2015.1120780 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2015.1120780
Löf M, Castro J, Engman M, Leverkus AB, Madsen P, Reque JA, Villalobos A, Gardiner ES (2019) Tamm review: Direct seeding to restore oak (Quercus spp.) forests and woodlands. For Ecol Manag 448:474–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.06.032 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.06.032
Löf M, Møller-Madsen E (1997) Ekskog till lågpris! Skog & Forskning 2:46–50.
Madsen P, Löf M (2005) Reforestation in southern Scandinavia using direct seeding of oak (Quercus robur L.) Forestry 78:55–64. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpi005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpi005
Mölder A, Meyer P, Nagel R-V (2019) Integrative management to sustain biodiversity and ecological continuity in Central European temperate oak (Quercus robur, Q. petraea) forests: An overview. For Ecol Manag 437:324–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.01.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.01.006
Ranius T, Johansson P, Berg N, Niklasson M (2008) The influence of tree age and microhabitat quality on the occurrence of crustose lichens associated with old oaks. J Veg Sci 19:653–662. https://doi.org/10.3170/2008-8-18433 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3170/2008-8-18433
Paltto H, Nordberg A, Nordén B, Snäll T (2011) Development of secondary woodland in oak wood pastures reduces the richness of rare epiphytic lichens. PLOS ONE 6(9):e24675. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024675 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024675
Petersson LK, Milberg P, Bergstedt J, Dahlgren J, Felton AM, Götmark F, Salk C, Löf M (2019) Changing land use and increasing abundance of deer cause natural regeneration failure of oaks: six decades of landscape-scale evidence. For Ecol Manag 444:299–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.04.037 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.04.037
Sjörs H (1999) The background: Geology, climate and zonation. In: Rydin H, Snoeijs P, Diekmann M (Eds.) Swedish Plant Geography. Acta Phytogeogr Suecica 84:5–14.
SLU (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences) (2020) Skogsdata 2020: aktuella uppgifter om de svenska skogarna från Riksskogstaxeringen. Department of Forest Resource Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Umeå, Sweden.
Spiecker H, Hansen J, Klimo E,Skovsgaard JP Sterba H, Teuffel K von (2004) Norway spruce conversion – options and consequences. European Forest Institute, Research Report 18. Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047412908
SMHI (2025) Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. Retrieved from https://www.smhi.se/data. Last accessed 4 October 2025.
Villalobos A, Schlyter F, Olsson G, Witzell J, Löf M (2020) Direct seeding for restoration of mixed oak forests: Influence of distance to forest edge, predator-derived repellent and acorn size on seed removal by granivorous rodents. For Ecol Manag 477:118484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118484 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118484
Villalobos A, Schlyter F, Dekker T, Larsson Herrara S, Birgersson G, Löf M (2023) Predator odor can reduce acorn removal by granivorous rodents in mixed oak forest stands. For Ecol Manag 548:121411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121411 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121411
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License CCBY that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
How to Cite
