When soil is moist and wind is at a gale force, the term used to describe blow down of old trees is windthrow. In contrast, toppling is a term used when planted pines lean more than 15° during the first decade after transplanting. Pines tend to topple more than other conifers and fast-growing species topple more than slow growing genotypes. Large areas of pine plantations have toppled before age 8 years. This paper describes some toppling events that have occurred in 18 countries and includes 16 questions about toppling.

Progeny trial is a scientific plantation established for different forestry purposes such as selection and establishment of seed sources. Tree height and diameter at breast height were examined in a 23-year-old progeny trial established by seedlings of five seed orchard populations and five seed stand populations which were mother/base populations of the orchards in Turkish red pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) to compare the seed sources for the traits in this study. Trees of seed orchard populations showed higher growth performances than that of seed stand populations for the traits. Most of the seed stand populations had higher tree height than their seed orchard populations opposite to diameter at breast height. While seed sources were similar (p>0.05), populations showed significant (p<0.05) differences for both traits according to results of analyses of variance. Tree height was more homogenous than diameter at breast based on Duncan’s multiple range tests and coefficients of variations. Positive and significant correlation (p<0.05) was found between the traits in both seed stand populations and seed orchard populations.

Container production of forest seedlings needs constant improvement, so in the aim to test the new container type this research was conducted. Quercus robur seedlings were produced in the container made of natron paper and compared  with seedlings produced in commonly used container types in Serbia. Q. robur seeds were sown in the first week of November 2020 in a total of 30 containers (10 of each type). After the first growing season in the nursery, on November 2021, seedlings’ morphological parameters (root collar diameter - RCD, height - H, dry weight of shoot (SDW) and root (RDW), seedling dry weight (SLDW), shoot to root ratio (S:R), sturdiness coefficient (SQ), dry weight of lateral roots (LRDW), percent of lateral roots (%LR), Dickson’s quality index (QI), root-bound index (RBI) as RBI-diameter and RBI-volume, and rooting intensity (ROIN)) were compared using one-way ANOVA. Seedlings produced in the new container showed better morphological parameters such as H, SQ, SDW, RDW, SLDW, LRDW, QI and ROIN. Differences of seedlings from different containers were not detected for H, RCD, SQ, SDW, %LR, RBI-diameter, so we can conclude that seedlings produced in the new container type are similar with other container seedlings. Larger volume of these cells indicate use for Quercus species which have strong roots. Results obtained from the nursery promote use of the new container in forest seedlings production and testing at the field.

This analysis compares the growth and yield of 16-year-old shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata Mill.) and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) planted on retired fields near Holly Springs in north Mississippi. The 1-0 bareroot shortleaf seedlings were planted in early March of 2005, while bareroot 1-0 loblolly pine 2^nd-generation seedlings were planted during the third week of March in 2005. For both species, the site was subsoiled. Within the plantations of each species, four plots were established for each species and total height and diameter at breast height (dbh) were measured. Volumes were then estimated using appropriate combined-variable volume equations. Loblolly pine had substantially greater growth rates relative to shortleaf pine, producing on average across the four plots (n = 4) 48.4 m^-2 of basal area ha^-1. This basal area was 42.6% greater than the 34.0 m^-2 of basal area ha^-1 observed within the shortleaf pine. For merchantable volume, defined as all trees with a dbh of 10.16 cm and greater up to a diameter-outside bark (dob) of 5.08 cm, the loblolly pine m^-3 volume ha^-1 of 424 was 2.36 times greater than that of shortleaf pine. Merchantable volumes were converted to tons and a revenue of $3.61 was assumed per ton of pulpwood. A theoretical 3^rd row thinning with no logger select of the remaining rows was conducted – hence the thinning was assumed to remove 33% of the standing merchantable yield. Loblolly pine had a stumpage value of $97.39 ha^-1 which was 136% greater than the shortleaf pine economic value of $41.23 ha^-1.

Bareroot nursery managers may apply dolomite, gypsum, or Ca-nitrate to increase Ca in nursery soils. Although a few managers follow S.A. Wilde’s recommendations and maintain soil at levels of 500 to 1,000 μg g^-1 Ca, there is no need to keep Ca levels this high.  In contrast, managers at sandy nurseries apply Ca when soil tests drop below 200 μg g^-1 Ca. In fact, acceptable pine seedlings have been produced in irrigated soil with <100 μg g^-1 available Ca. In plantations, asymptomatic wildlings grow when topsoil contains 17 μg g^-1 Ca. In sandy soils, applying too much gypsum can result in a temporary Mg deficiency and too much lime will result in chlorotic needles. Managers apply Ca when foliar levels fall below a published “critical value.” The belief that the critical value for Ca varies by stock type is not valid. In fact, numerous “critical” values are invalid since they were not determined using growth response curves. Critical values determined for small seedlings using CaCl₂ in sand are apparently not valid for use in bareroot nurseries. At bareroot nurseries, the soil extractable Ca level can decline during a year by 30 μg g-1 or more. Harvesting 1.7 million pine seedlings may remove 20 kg ha^-1 of Ca but irrigation can replace this amount or more. When water contains 5 mg l^-1 Ca, 600 mm of irrigation will add 30 kg ha^-1 Ca. In some areas, 1,000 mm of rainfall will supply 7 kg ha^-1 Ca. Even when a Mehlich 1 test shows no exchangeable Ca in the topsoil, pine needles on tall trees may exceed 2,000 μg g^-1 Ca due to root growth in subsoil. There are few documented cases of deficient pine needles (<300 μg g^-1 Ca) in irrigated nurseries in Australia, New Zealand, Scotland and in the Americas. Even when soil fumigation delays the inoculation of ectomycorrhiza, bareroot pines have adequate levels of Ca. Typically, foliage samples from pine nurseries contain at least 1,000 μg g^-1 Ca. Samples from 9-month-old seedlings range from 300 to 11,000 μg g^-1 Ca. Although the “critical value” for Pinus echinata foliage is not known, 1-0 seedlings with 300 μg g^-1 Ca were not stunted and apparently grew well after ouplanting.

Pines with visible magnesium (Mg) deficiencies (i.e. yellow tips on needles) occur in bareroot nurseries throughout the world. The occurrence of “yellow-tips” is rare when soil pH is above 6.5 but they have occurred on sands (pH < 6.0) with less than 25 μg g^-1 Mg.  If yellow-tips occur in the summer, the foliar content of yellow tips is usually less than 1,000 μg g^-1 Mg. Some nurseries do not produce “yellow-tip” seedlings when irrigation water contains sufficient Mg. Factors favoring a deficiency include low soil pH, high calcium in irrigation water, frequent fertilization with nitrogen and potassium and applying too much gypsum. Although various Mg fertilizers are available, many nursery managers apply dolomite or potassium-magnesium sulfate before sowing seeds and a few also apply magnesium sulfate in July or August. Soil tests are used to determine when to fertilize before sowing and foliage tests determine when to apply Mg to green seedlings. Nursery managers who follow S.A. Wilde’s forest-based soil recommendations may apply magnesium sulfate to green seedlings even when seedbeds contain adequate levels of Mg. When deficiency is minor, chlorosis on needle tips usually disappears before the fall equinox and, when applied at this time, Mg fertilizers have little or no effect on height growth. This paper reviews some of the past and current uses of Mg in bareroot nurseries and highlights a need for additional research.

Provenance trials, as the subject of continuous analyses, provide empirical information about the plasticity of tree species. Changing climate and environmental conditions likely favor genotypes with high levels of plasticity. Finding the suitable provenance for the reintroduction of pedunculate oak to habitats that are threatened and where this species no longer exists provides important information for the targeted use of the available gene pool. The dominant ecological factors in the development of pedunculate oak forests are groundwater level and changes in the hydrological regime of habitats. In this study, we established nursery and field provenance trials to test two pedunculate oak seed provenances from different hydrological conditions to investigate the influence of seedlings' provenance and field microhabitat on growth parameters and survival. In the nursery trial, the height and ground level diameter were measured. After three years in the pilot object, the height and diameter were analyzed again, as well as the survival. To determine the microhabitat influence planting area was divided in two ways: three repetitions and two planting blocks. In this study, significant differences in analyzed growth parameters between the chosen provenances were obtained at the end of the first vegetation period. In later ontogenetic phases influence of the provenance is missing. As the difference between provenances disappears, the influence of microhabitat occurs (significant differences between repetition or planting blocks). After the second year of development, no significant difference was observed between the two provenances of different hydrological regimes, but there are significant differences between the microhabitats in the afforested area (established pilot object).

This study was conducted in Musanze district, Rwanda, to evaluate the net benefits of silky oak (Grevillea robusta) production for small farmers. A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to 100 households distributed in four villages. The cost-benefit ratio was used as a decision-making tool. A diameter tape and a Haga altimeter were used to measure the DBH and height of grevillea and other dominant agroforestry tree species. Results indicate that 66 % of laborers were family members, gaining 625 Rwf per person day with grevillea production (US$ 0.61, with 4-8 hours of work per day. Also, results show that farmers earn 57,950 Rwandan Francs (Rwf) per hectare per year (US$ 57.48 from grevillea products (stakes, poles, charcoal, and timber), whereas the mean investment in grevillea production is 54,200 Rwf ha^-1 year^-1 (US$ 53.76. The net farm income is 3,225 Rwf (US$ 3.2 ha^-1 year^-1. The net benefit from grevillea product is affected by poor farmer data record as the majority of67% of respondents has not attended any formal education. However, farmers gain additional benefits of US$ 628, US$ 298, and US$ 224 ha^-1 year^-1 from potatoes, maize, and bean, respectively, depending on their crop choice during intercropping with grevillea. The benefit-cost ratio is 1.06, which highlights the modest profitability of growing grevillea on the farm. In addition, soil erosion control, soil fertility increase, landslide prevention, shade provision, microclimate improvement, and biodiversity conservation were reported as ecosystem services of grevillea on the farm. Growth performance of grevillea (diameter at breast height, tree height, and volume) is analyzed in all four villages. The study shows that growing grevillea is profitable for smallholder farmers via tree products and farm benefits, including ecosystem services aspects.

Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of drought in the western USA. Evidence suggests that drought preconditioning of plants may improve the survival of planted seedlings under dry conditions through enhanced water uptake by roots, but the mechanisms underlying enhanced survival under drought remain unknown. We tested whether the vertical distribution of roots in root plug cross-sections varied with drought preconditioning and seed source. We subjected western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) seedlings from eight different provenances to Low (50-65% gravimetric water content), Moderate (65-75%), and High (≥75%) watering regimes in a nursery. We then investigated dry root mass across four root-plug sections, including the taproot and three lateral root cross-sections (top 1/3rd, middle 1/3rd, and bottom 1/3rd of root plugs). We also tested for carry-over effect of drought preconditioning on the mass of egressed roots observed among cross-sections of potting soil in a 30-day potted study. Root plug mass varied significantly (P< 0.001) with watering regime, root plug cross-section, and an interaction between watering regime and cross-section. Overall, seedlings that received less water produced lateral root plug cross-sections of greater mass, which coincided with taproots of less mass. In contrast to findings from the root plug study, the distribution of egressed root mass among cross-sections of potting soil did not vary with drought preconditioning. This is the first study to assess seedling root growth in response to drought preconditioning in western larch with a focus on the distribution of root mass in root plugs and egressed root mass among soil cross-sections. We expect this work to facilitate future efforts to improve drought hardiness of western larch seedlings. Future improvement of western larch seedlings will require investigation into whether altered root plug mass distribution translates to improved seedling performance in outplanting trials.

Nursery seedlings with visual boron (B) deficiencies are rare, especially for broadleaf species but they may have occurred in conifer nurseries in Florida, Oregon and the UK. Factors favoring a deficiency include high soil pH, high soil calcium and low soil moisture (i.e. withholding irrigation). Symptoms of a boron deficiency in pine include dead terminals, resin exudation from buds, dark green foliage, and terminal needles with less than 3 μg g^-1 B. Chlorosis is an iron deficiency symptom but is not a boron deficiency symptom. At some nurseries (with more than 2% organic matter and more than 0.05 μg g^-1 B in irrigation water), seedlings do not have a hidden hunger for B. As a result, there are no published trials that demonstrate a positive growth response from adding boron to managed nursery soils (when seedbed density is not reduced by boron). This review highlights some of the past and current uses of B in nurseries with a focus on deficiency and toxicity effects.