Seeding forest trees
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.12.142Keywords:
direct seeding, forest restoration, seed quality, species selection, seed predation, technological innovations, establishment ratesAbstract
Seeding is gaining popularity in global forestation for its scalability and cost-effectiveness, especially where nursery stock is limited. It enables rapid, large-scale forest establishment, even on remote or degraded sites, and allows control over species and genetic diversity. Seeding is cost-effective for inaccessible or low-productivity areas and is used in ecological restoration to boost biodiversity. Success depends on species, seed quality, timing, soil, and site management. It is best suited for areas where natural regeneration is infeasible, low-cost forestation is needed, sites are remote or difficult to access, or rapid resource control is required. Germination and establishment rates are generally low (average germination ~44%, establishment ~21%), with significant variability by species and site. Large-seeded, fast-germinating species perform better. Seed availability and quality are key challenges. Proper timing, storage, and site preparation are crucial, particularly for species with recalcitrant seeds. Methods include broadcast and direct placement, with drone seeding emerging for large projects. Higher seeding rates are needed for small seeds and broadcast methods. Climate change is increasing drought and heat stress, making moisture retention and microclimate management more important. Technological advances, like automation, seed treatments (coatings, biochar, mycorrhizal inoculation and encapsulation), and precision seeding, are improving outcomes. Combining seeding with planting can enhance diversity and success, but careful planning and ongoing management remain essential.
Downloads
References
Abrams MD, Nowacki GJ (2008) Native Americans as active and passive promoters of mast and fruit trees in the eastern USA. The Holocene 18(7):1123–1137. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683608095581 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683608095581
Aguirre-Salcedo C, Montaño-Arias SA, Jansson R (2025). Restoration implications of the germination ecology of six dry-forest woody Fabaceae species in Mexico. Trees 39(2):33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-025-02606-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-025-02606-0
Ammer C, Mosandl R (2007). Which grow better under the canopy of Norway spruce—planted or sown seedlings of European beech? Forestry 80(4):385–395. https://doi.org/10.1093/Forestry /cpm023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpm023
Amorós L, Ledesma J (2020) Aerial robotics and forest management and seeding. In: Elliott S, Gale G, Robertson M (eds) Automated Forest Restoration: Could robots revive rain forests? Proceedings of a brain-storming workshop, FORRU-CMU, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, TH, pp 102-111.
Balandier P, Prévosto B (2015) Forest restoration in the French Massif Central Mountains. In: Stanturf JA (ed), Restoration of Boreal and Temperate Forests, Second Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 337-354.
Bannister JR, Vargas‐Gaete R, Ovalle JF, Acevedo M, Fuentes‐Ramirez A, Donoso PJ, Promis A, Smith‐Ramírez C (2018) Major bottlenecks for the restoration of natural forests in Chile. Restor Ecol 26(6):1039–1044. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12880 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12880
Baumhauer H, Madsen P, Stanturf J (2005) Regeneration by direct seeding—a way to reduce costs of conversion. In: Stanturf JA, Madsen P (eds) Restoration of Boreal and Temperate Forests. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 349–354. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203497784.ch22
Bonilla-Moheno M, Holl KD (2010) Direct seeding to restore tropical mature-forest species in areas of slash-and-burn agriculture. Restor Ecol 18(s2):438–445. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2009.00580.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2009.00580.x
Bonner FT, Karrfalt RP, eds (2008) The Woody Plant Seed Manual. US Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 727, Washington, DC, USA.
Brooker RW, Maestre FT, Callaway RM, Lortie CL, Cavieres LA, Kunstler G, Liancourt P, Tielbörger K, Travis JMJ, Anthelme F, Armas C, Coll L, Corcket E, Delzon S, Forey E, Kikvidze Z, Olofsson J, Pugnaire F, Quiroz CL, Saccone P, Schiffers K, Seifan M, Touzard B, Michalet R (2008) Facilitation in plant communities: the past, the present, and the future. J Ecol 96(1):18–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01295.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01295.x
Brooks S, Cordell S, Perry L (2009) Broadcast seeding as a potential tool to reestablish native species in degraded dry forest ecosystems in Hawaii. Ecol Restor 27(3):300–305. https://doi.org/10.3368/er.27.3.300 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3368/er.27.3.300
Bullard S, Hodges JD, Johnson RL, Straka TJ (1992) Economics of direct seeding and planting for establishing oak stands on old-field sites in the South. South J Appl For 16(1):34–40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/16.1.34
Camargo JLC, Ferraz IDK, Imakawa AM (2002) Rehabilitation of degraded areas of central Amazonia using direct sowing of forest tree seeds. Rest Ecol 10(4):636–644. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100X.2002.01044.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1526-100X.2002.01044.x
Campos-Filho EM, Da Costa JNMN, De Sousa OL, Junqueira RGP (2013) Mechanized direct-seeding of native forests in Xingu, central Brazil. J Sustain For 32(7):702–727. https://doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2013.817341 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2013.817341
Castro J, Morales-Rueda F, Navarro FB, Löf M, Vacchiano G, Alcaraz-Segura D (2021) Precision restoration: a necessary approach to foster forest recovery in the 21st century. Restor Ecol 29(7):e13421. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13421 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13421
Castro J, Pérez-García M, Lovenstein H, Pedrini S (2026) Seeding pines in the Mediterranean region. Reforesta 21: 10-31. https://dx.doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.02.132 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.02.132
Ceccon E, González EJ, Martorell C (2016) Is direct seeding a biologically viable strategy for restoring forest ecosystems? Evidences from a meta‐analysis. Land Degrad Dev 27(3):511–520. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2421 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2421
Cole RJ, Holl KD, Keene C, Zahawi RA (2011) Direct seeding of late-successional trees to restore tropical montane forest. For Ecol Manag 261(10):1590–1597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2010.06.038 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2010.06.038
de Souza DC (2022) Forest restoration by direct seeding: a global bibliometric analysis. Restor Ecol 30(8):e13631. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13631 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13631
de Souza DC, Engel VL (2018) Direct seeding reduces costs, but it is not promising for restoring tropical seasonal forests. Ecol Eng 116:35–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2018.02.019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2018.02.019
de Souza DC, Engel VL (2023) Advances, challenges, and directions for ecological restoration by direct seeding of trees: Lessons from Brazil. Biol Conservation 284:110172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110172 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110172
Dias Laumann P, Cardoso Ferreira M, Alves da Silva D, Luis Mascia Vieira D (2023) Germination traits explain the success of direct seeding restoration in the seasonal tropics of Brazil. For Ecol Manag 529:120706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120706
Doust SJ, Erskine PD, Lamb D (2006) Direct seeding to restore rainforest species: Microsite effects on the early establishment and growth of rainforest tree seedlings on degraded land in the wet tropics of Australia. For Ecol Manag 234(1):333–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2006.07.014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2006.07.014
Downer R, Manteuffel-Ross T, Tymon L, Aghai M (2024). Direct seeding for conifer regeneration in the Pacific Northwest: a past, present, and future of operational practices. J For 122(2):171–184. https://doi.org/10.1093/jofore/fvad050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jofore/fvad050
Egerer MH, Fricke EC, Rogers HS (2018) Seed dispersal as an ecosystem service: frugivore loss leads to decline of a socially valued plant, Capsicum frutescens. Ecol Appl 28(3):655–667. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.1667 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.1667
Elliott S, Blakesley D, Hardwick K (2013) Restoring Tropical Forests: A Practical Guide. Kew Publishing, Kew, UK.
Elliott S, Tucker NI, Shannon DP, Tiansawat P (2023) The framework species method: harnessing natural regeneration to restore tropical forest ecosystems. Philos Trans Royal Soc B 378(1867):20210073. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0073 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0073
Engel VL, de Souza DC, Parrotta J (2026) An overview of seeding methods to restore tropical forests of Brasil. Reforesta 21:105-145. https://dx.doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.07.137 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.07.137
Fischer H, Huth F, Hagemann U, Wagner S (2015) Developing restoration strategies for temperate forests using natural regeneration processes. In: Stanturf JA (ed) Restoration of Boreal and Temperate Forests, Second Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 103–164.
Foley JA, DeFries R, Asner GP, Barford C, Bonan G, Carpenter SR, Chapin FS, Coe MT, Daily GC, Gibbs HK (2005) Global consequences of land use. Science 309(5734):570–574. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1111772 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1111772
Freitas MG, Rodrigues SB, Campos-Filho EM, do Carmo GHP, da Veiga JM, Junqueira RGP, Vieira DLM (2019) Evaluating the success of direct seeding for tropical forest restoration over ten years. For Ecol Manag 438:224–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.02.024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.02.024
Frischie S, Miller AL, Pedrini S, Kildisheva OA (2020) Ensuring seed quality in ecological restoration: Native seed cleaning and testing. Restor Ecol 28(S3):S239–S248. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13217 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13217
Garcı́a D, Zamora R, Hódar JA, Gómez JM, Castro J (2000). Yew (Taxus baccata L.) regeneration is facilitated by fleshy-fruited shrubs in Mediterranean environments. Biol Conservation 95(1):31–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00016-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00016-1
Garcia-Orth X, Martínez-Ramos M (2008) Seed dynamics of early and late successional tree species in tropical abandoned pastures: seed burial as a way of evading predation. Restor Ecol 16(3):435–443. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2007.00320.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2007.00320.x
Gardiner E, Stanturf J (2026) Seeding bottomland oaks (Quercus spp.) in the southern United States. Reforesta 21: 166-189. https://dx.doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.09.139 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.09.139
Gardiner ES, Oliver JM (2005) Restoration of bottomland hardwood forests in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley, USA. In: Stanturf JA, Madsen P (eds) Restoration of Boreal and Temperate Forests. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA. pp 235–251. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/9780203497784.ch15
Gil-Pelegrín E, Peguero-Pina JJ, Sancho-Knapik D, 2017. Oaks and people: a long journey together. In: Gil-Pelegrín E, Peguero-Pina J, Sancho-Knapik D (eds) Oaks Physiological Ecology. Exploring the Functional Diversity of Genus Quercus L. Springer, Cham, Switzerland pp 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69099-5_1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69099-5_1
Gómez-Aparicio L, Zamora R, Gómez JM, Hódar JA, Castro J, Baraza E (2004) Applying plant facilitation to forest restoration: A meta-analysis of the use of shrubs as nurse plants. Ecol Appl 14(4):1128–1138. https://doi.org/10.1890/03-5084 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1890/03-5084
Grossiord C, Buckley TN, Cernusak LA, Novick KA, Poulter B, Siegwolf RT, Sperry JS, McDowell NG (2020) Plant responses to rising vapor pressure deficit. New Phytol 226(6):1550–1566. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16485 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16485
Grossnickle SC, Ivetić V (2017) Direct seeding in reforestation–a field performance review. Reforesta 4:94–142. https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.4.07.46 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.4.07.46
Grubb PJ (1977). The maintenance of species‐richness in plant communities: the importance of the regeneration niche. Biol Rev 52(1):107–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1977.tb01347.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.1977.tb01347.x
Guariguata MR (2000) Seed and seedling ecology of tree species in neotropical secondary forests: Management implications. Ecol Appl 10(1):145–154. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0145:SASEOT]2.0.CO;2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0145:SASEOT]2.0.CO;2
Hankin LE, Leger EA, Bisbing SM (2023) Reforestation of high elevation pines: Direct seeding success depends on seed source and sowing environment. Ecol Appl 33(6):e2897. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2897 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2897
Ivetić V, Marinković M (2026) Seeding to establish Ravni Srem oak forests, Nothern Serbia. Reforesta 21:199-207. https://dx.doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.11.141 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.11.141
Johnston MR, Barnes ML, Preisler Y, Smith WK, Biederman JA, Scott RL, Williams AP, Dannenberg MP (2025) Effects of hot versus dry vapor pressure deficit on ecosystem carbon and water fluxes. J Geophys Res: Biogeosciences 130(1):e2024JG008146. https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JG008146 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JG008146
Kildisheva OA, Dixon KW, Silveira FAO, Chapman T, Di Sacco A, Mondoni A, Turner SR, Cross AT (2020) Dormancy and germination: Making every seed count in restoration. Restor Ecol 28(S3):S256–S265. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13140 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13140
Laumann PD, Ferreira MC, da Silva DA, Vieira DLM (2023) Germination traits explain the success of direct seeding restoration in the seasonal tropics of Brazil. For Ecol Manag 529:120706.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120706 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120706
Liu H, Chen Z, Wang Z, Li J (2023) An effective precision afforestation system for UAV. Sustainability 15(3):2212. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032212 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032212
Löf M, Castro J, Engman M, Leverkus AB, Madsen P, Reque JA, Villalobos A, Gardiner ES (2019) Tamm Review: Direct seeding to restore oak (Quercus spp.) forests and woodlands. For Ecol Manag 448:474–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.06.032 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.06.032
Löf M, Dey DC, Navarro RM, Jacobs DF 2012. Mechanical site preparation for forest restoration. New For 43(5-6):825–848. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9332-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9332-x
Löf M, Ersson B, Hjältén J, Nordfjell T, Oliet JA, Willoughby I. 2015. Site preparation techniques for forest restoration. In: Stanturf J.A. (ed) Restoration of Boreal and Temperate Forests, Second Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 85–102.
Löf M, Miles B, Moe KT, Pohl N, Schönbeck L (2026) Seeding of oak in southern Sweden. Reforesta 21: 190-198. https://dx.doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.10.140 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.10.140
López-Barrera F, García-Hernández MÁ (2026) Seeding acorns from montane cloud forest restoration in central Veracruz, Mexico: practical experiences. Reforesta 21:146-165. https://dx.doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.08.138 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.08.138
Lord J, Moss-Mason K (2026) Seeding for native afforestation in temperate New Zealand forests. Reforesta 21:68-86. https://dx.doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.05.135 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.05.135
Lozano-Baez SE, Morio A, Bonnet B, Valderrama PD, Sánchez OAC, Trujillo JRT, Paladines HM, Flórez M, Gómez E, Medina FJ, Meli P (2025) Lessons learned from direct seeding to restore degraded mountains in Cauca, Colombia. Ecol Manag Restor 26(1):e12625. https://doi.org/10.1111/emr.12625 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/emr.12625
Madalcho AB, Gazda A, Szwagrzyk J (2025) Ungulate browsing patterns and forage abundance determine the regeneration of palatable tree species: Using new perspectives in assessing ungulate browsing pressure in temperate forests. For Ecosyst 12:100288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fecs.2024.100288 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fecs.2024.100288
Madsen P, Jensen FA, Fodgaard S (2015) Afforestation in Denmark. In: Stanturf J.A. (ed) Restoration of Boreal and Temperate Forests, Second Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA, pp 201–216. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/b18809-13
Madsen P, Löf M (2005) Reforestation in southern Scandinavia using direct seeding of oak (Quercus robur L.). Forestry 78(1):55–64. https://doi.org/10.1093/Forestry /cpi005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpi005
Merritt DJ, Dixon KW (2011) Restoration seed banks—a matter of scale. Science 332(6028):424–425. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1203083 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1203083
Mohan M, Richardson G, Gopan G, Aghai MM, Bajaj S, Galgamuwa GAP, Vastaranta M, Arachchige PSP, Amorós L, Corte APD, de-Miguel S, Leite RV, Kganyago M, Broadbent EN, Doaemo W, Shorab MAB, Cardil A (2021) UAV-supported forest regeneration: Current trends, challenges and implications. Remote Sens 13(13):2596. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132596 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13132596
Naruangsri K, Pathom-aree W, Elliott S, Tiansawat P (2024) Selecting suitable tree species for direct seeding to restore forest ecosystems in northern Thailand. Forests 15(4):674. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15040674 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/f15040674
Negreros-Castillo P, Snook LK, Mize CW (2003) Regenerating mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) from seed in Quintana Roo, Mexico: the effects of sowing method and clearing treatment. For Ecol Manag 183(1):351–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(03)00143-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(03)00143-9
Novick KA, Ficklin DL, Grossiord C, Konings AG, Martinez-Vilalta J, Sadok W, Trugman AT, Williams AP, Wright AJ, Abatzoglou JT, Dannenberg MP, Gentine P, Guan K, Johnston MR, Lowman LEL, Moore DJP, McDowell NG (2024) The impacts of rising vapour pressure deficit in natural and managed ecosystems. Plant Cell Environ 47(9):3561–3589. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.14846 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.14846
Nunes S, Gastauer M, Cavalcante RBL, Ramos SJ, Caldeira CF, Silva D, Rodrigues R., Salomão R, Oliveira M, Souza-Filho PWM, Siqueira JO (2020). Challenges and opportunities for large-scale reforestation in the Eastern Amazon using native species. For Ecol Manag 466:118120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118120 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118120
Oliet JA Jacobs, DF (2012) Restoring forests: advances in techniques and theory. New For 43(5):535–541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9354-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9354-4
Oliver CD, Larson BC (1996) Forest Stand Dynamics: Updated Edition. John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/forestscience/42.3.397
Palma AC, Laurance SGW (2015) A review of the use of direct seeding and seedling plantings in restoration: what do we know and where should we go? Appl Veg Sci 18(4):561–568. https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12173 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/avsc.12173
Pansing E, Tomback D (2026) Seeding of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) in western north American subalpine forests: Development and application. Reforesta 21:32-53. https://dx.doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.03.133 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.03.133
Pedrini S, Balestrazzi A, Madsen MD, Bhalsing K Hardegree, SP, Dixon KW, Kildisheva OA (2020a) Seed enhancement: getting seeds restoration-ready. Restor Ecol 28(S3):S266–S275. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13184 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13184
Pedrini S, Dixon KW (2020) International principles and standards for native seeds in ecological restoration. Restor Ecol 28(S3):S286–S303. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13155 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13155
Pedrini S, Gibson-Roy P, Trivedi C, Gálvez-Ramírez C, Hardwick K, Shaw N, Frischie S, Laverack G, Dixon K (2020b) Collection and production of native seeds for ecological restoration. Restor Ecol 28(S3):S228–S238. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13190 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13190
Piotrowski I, Paladines HM, de Almeida LS, López AMT, Dutra FB, Francisco BS, da Silva JMS, Piña-Rodrigues FCM (2023) Seeds’ early traits as predictors of performance in direct seeding restoration. Forests 14(3):547. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030547 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030547
Saldarriaga MG, Lee M, Farquhar S (2025) Does drone-facilitated revegetation work? A case study from Taiwan. Acad Environ Sci Sustain 2:2. https://www.doi.org/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7624 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadEnvSci7624
Schmidt L (2008) A review of direct sowing versus planting in tropical afforestation and land rehabilitation. Development and Environment Series 10-2008. Forest & Landscape Denmark, Hørsholm, Denmark.
Schmidt L (2016) Forest seed collection, processing, and testing. In: Pancel L, Köhl M (eds) Tropical Forestry Handbook, Second Edition, Springer, Berlin, Germany. pp 959–994. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-54601-3_225
Shaw N, Barak RS, Campbell RE, Kirmer A, Pedrini S, Dixon K, Frischie S (2020) Seed use in the field: delivering seeds for restoration success. Restor Ecol 28(S3):S276–S285. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13210 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13210
Sikström U, Hjelm K, Hanssen K, Saksa T, Wallertz K (2020) Influence of mechanical site preparation on regeneration success of planted conifers in clearcuts in Fennoscandia – a review. Silva Fennica 54(2):10172. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10172 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.10172
Stamatopoulos I, Le TC, Daver F (2024) UAV-assisted seeding and monitoring of reforestation sites: a review. Aust For 87(2):90–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.2024.2343516 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.2024.2343516
Stanturf JA, Callaham M, eds. (2021) Soils and Landscape Restoration. Academic Press, London, UK.
Stanturf JA, Dumroese RK, Elliott S, Ivetic V, Kleine M, Lang M, Löf M, Madsen P, Prescott C, Khokthong W, Young T (2024). Advances in forest restoration management and technology. In: Katila P, Pierce Colfer CJ, de Jong W, Galloway G, Pacheco P, Winkel G (eds) Restoring Forests and Trees for Sustainable Development: Policies, Practices, Impacts, and Ways Forward. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. pp 297–334. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/9780197683958.003.0011
Stanturf JA, Schweitzer CJ, Gardiner ES (1998) Afforestation of marginal agricultural land in the Lower Mississippi River Alluvial Valley, USA. Silva Fennica 32(3):281–297. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.688
Stavi I, Bebre I, Dimitrova A, Stanturf J (2024) Cover cropping to prepare degraded lands for forestry: Challenges and opportunities. New For 55(5):1049–1063. https://doi/org/10.1007/s11056-023-10023-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-023-10023-9
Stavi I, Siad SM, Kyriazopoulos AP, Halbac-Cotoara-Zamfir R (2020) Water runoff harvesting systems for restoration of degraded rangelands: A review of challenges and opportunities. J Environ Manag 255:109823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109823 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109823
Sudrajat D, Yulianti, Rustam E (2026) Seeding of tropical tree species in Indonesia. Reforesta 21: 87-104. https://dx.doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.06.136 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.06.136
Tanner KE, Parker IM, Fountain MC, Thomsen AS, Wasson K (2025) Unfriendly neighbors: When facilitation does not contribute to restoration success in tidal marsh. Ecol Appl 35(1):e3079. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.3079 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.3079
Tiansawat P, Elliott S (2020) Unmanned aerial vehicles for automated forest restoration. In: Elliott S, Gale G, Robertson M (eds.) Automated forest restoration: Could robots revive rain forests? Proceedings of a brain-storming workshop, FORRU-CMU, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand, pp 28–45.
Toumey JW (1916) Seeding and Planting. John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA.
Tunjai P (2012) Direct Seeding for Restoring Tropical Lowland Forest Ecosystems in Southern Thailand. PhD Thesis, Walailak University, Thasala District Nakhonsrithammarat, Thailand. 216 pp.
Tunjai P, Elliott S (2012) Effects of seed traits on the success of direct seeding for restoring southern Thailand’s lowland evergreen forest ecosystem. New For 43:319–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-011-9283-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-011-9283-7
Vallejo VR, Smanis A, Chirino E, Fuentes D, Valdecantos A, Vilagrosa A (2012) Perspectives in dryland restoration: approaches for climate change adaptation. New For 43(5-6):561–579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9325-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9325-9
Vieira DLM, de Lima VV, Sevilha AC, Scariot A (2008). Consequences of dry-season seed dispersal on seedling establishment of dry forest trees: Should we store seeds until the rains? For Ecol Manag 256(3):471–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2008.04.052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2008.04.052
Vozzo JA, ed (2002) Tropical Tree Seed Manual. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 721. Washinton, DC, USA.
Waiboonya P, Elliott S (2020) Sowing time and direct seeding success of native tree species for restoring tropical forest ecosystems in northern Thailand. New For 51(1):81–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-019-09720-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-019-09720-1
Wang FC, Liu Q, Wang GG (2026) Pinus massoniana seeding practices for forest restoration in China. Reforesta 21:54-68. https://dx.doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.04.134 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21750/REFOR.21.04.134
Willoughby I, Jinks RL (2009) The effect of duration of vegetation management on broadleaved woodland creation by direct seeding. Forestry 82(3):343–359. https://doi.org/10.1093/Forestry /cpp012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpp012
Willoughby I, Jinks RL, Kerr G, Gosling PG (2004) Factors affecting the success of direct seeding for lowland afforestation in the UK. Forestry 77(5):467–482. https://doi.org/10.1093/Forestry /77.5.467 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/77.5.467
Willoughby IH, Jinks RL, Forster J (2019) Direct seeding of birch, rowan and alder can be a viable technique for the restoration of upland native woodland in the UK. Forestry 92(3):324–338. https://doi.org/10.1093/Forestry/cpz018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpz018
Witzell J, Oliet JA, Vilagrosa A, Kanjevac B, Hanssen KH, Chiatante D, Bebre I, Madsen P, Çerçioğlu M (2026) Forward-looking practices for climate-responsive site preparation, direct seeding, and planting. In: Stanturf JA, Villar-Salvador P, Mariotti B, Ivetić V, Madsen P, Montagnoli A, Andivia E, Bebre I, Dimitrova A, Klisz M (eds) Guidelines for Climate Adaptive Forest Restoration and Reforestation Projects, Elsevier. pp. 193-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-34086-4.00010-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-34086-4.00010-4
Woods K, Elliott S (2004) Direct seeding for forest restoration on abandoned agricultural land in northern Thailand. J Trop For Sci 16:248–259.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License CCBY that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
How to Cite
